Add wos sample results library

02-data/intermediate/wos_sample/9129ad0858b04646f0572e78febebdc8-gifford-b/info.yaml

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+abstract: 'Since the end of the draft in 1973, African Americans have been
+
+  overrepresented among volunteers for the US Armed Forces.(1) While many
+
+  commentators have hailed the military as a uniquely egalitarian avenue
+
+  for social and economic advancement in a society beset with racial
+
+  inequities, the high participation rate among blacks has periodically
+
+  led to concerns that they (and more recently, other ethnic minorities
+
+  such as Hispanics) would disproportionately suffer from casualties in
+
+  the event of military hostilities.(2) However, after numerous US
+
+  military engagements since the 1970s, these fears have not been borne
+
+  out. In fact, African Americans seem less likely to die in combat than
+
+  their overall representation in uniform would suggest. Taken at face
+
+  value, the racial composition of US combat casualties stands in stark
+
+  contrast to the racial pattern of morbidity and mortality in the larger
+
+  society, where African Americans as a group fare worse than whites on
+
+  measures such as death rates, infant mortality, and life expectancy.(3)
+
+  It would seem that, as a comparatively disadvantaged group, African
+
+  Americans in the all-volunteer era have reaped the benefits of military
+
+  service without unduly bearing its ultimate burdens. However,
+
+  explanations for the unexpectedly low African American casualty rate
+
+  have not been rigorously examined. Furthermore, assessing the racial
+
+  equity of military service based on historical casualty patterns assumes
+
+  that future combat operations will closely resemble those that have
+
+  occurred since Vietnam-an assumption that in this new century looks
+
+  increasingly untenable.
+
+  Extending the work of Martin Binkin and his collaborators,(4) this study
+
+  argues that the racial composition of combat casualties reflects three
+
+  factors: the social processes that sort volunteers into various military
+
+  units and occupational specialties; the mix of units and specialties
+
+  that participate in military operations; and the battlefield conditions
+
+  they encounter. Or put another way, given a particular environment
+
+  within which armed conflict occurs, the probability of any person
+
+  becoming a casualty is a function of their representation in those units
+
+  most likely to make hostile contact with enemy forces. Following this,
+
+  the underrepresentation of African Americans in the units most involved
+
+  in combat operations since Vietnam may partly explain the disjuncture
+
+  between their military participation and casualty rates. By extension,
+
+  the higher propensity of whites to serve in combat capacities could
+
+  explain their higher-than-expected, post-Vietnam casualty rate. The same
+
+  may be true of ethnic Hispanics, who are also overrepresented in the
+
+  combat arms, though their reasons for volunteering for such assignments
+
+  may differ from those of their non-Hispanic white counterparts.
+
+  The short duration of post-Vietnam US ground combat engagements such as
+
+  Panama and Somalia-as well as the prominent roles played by special
+
+  operations and light-infantry units for which blacks are less likely to
+
+  volunteer(5)-has thus far prevented a rigorous evaluation of such
+
+  propositions. However, the 2003-2004 conflict in Iraq presents one
+
+  opportunity to assess the race distribution of US casualties under
+
+  varying combat conditions. First, compared to other combat engagements
+
+  since Vietnam, many diverse military units have been operating in Iraq
+
+  for a relatively long time. Second, the US military experience in Iraq
+
+  has been, broadly speaking, marked by differing conflict environments.
+
+  In the relatively brief opening period, coalition ground combat forces
+
+  (mainly US and British infantry and armor) rapidly penetrated deep into
+
+  enemy territory and carried out offensive actions primarily against
+
+  Iraqi military forces. The subsequent-and ongoing-mission involves
+
+  efforts by combat and noncombat personnel (e.g., intelligence, police,
+
+  logistical, and civil affairs) to consolidate US control, restore civil
+
+  order, pacify hostile forces, and administer occupied areas.
+
+  This study assesses the racial equity of military service by examining
+
+  the racial distribution of US casualties in Iraq for the first twelve
+
+  months national dialogue on the equity of military service may shift
+
+  back to the social process that impels whites-particularly those from
+
+  the lower socioeconomic strata-into the ranks. However, should US troops
+
+  resume large-scale offensive campaigns against a number of seerningly
+
+  growing and increasingly well-organized insurgent threats, casualties
+
+  among blacks and Hispanics may creep up to a point where the fairness of
+
+  military sacrifice again becomes an uncomfortable racial issue.
+
+  On a final note, the findings of this study are not germane only to the
+
+  military experiences of the United States. As of 2000, several advanced
+
+  industrial democracies with long histories of conscription had abandoned
+
+  the practice in favor of voluntary service, or had plans to phase it out
+
+  by 2004. (36) Some nations with rising immigration rates have
+
+  experienced increased racial and ethnic diversity in their volunteer
+
+  militaries,(37) while others (such as Spain and France) actively recruit
+
+  foreign volunteers. At the same time, conflicts such as Kosovo in 1999
+
+  and contemporary operations in Afghanistan and Iraq have subjected the
+
+  militaries of many nations to their first hostile fire in decades (for
+
+  example, coalition casualties in Iraq include personnel from Italy,
+
+  Spain, Poland, Denmark, and Bulgaria). To the degree that ethnic
+
+  enlistment patterns are similarly structured by socioeconomic factors,
+
+  debates about military equity and recruitment policies in the US case
+
+  may presage similar dialogues elsewhere.'
+affiliation: 'Gifford, B (Corresponding Author), Univ Calif Berkeley, Robert Wood
+  Johnson Fdn, 140 Warren Hall,MC 7360, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA.
+
+  Univ Calif Berkeley, Robert Wood Johnson Fdn, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA.'
+author: Gifford, B
+author-email: gifford@berkeley.edu
+author_list:
+- family: Gifford
+  given: B
+da: '2023-09-28'
+doi: 10.1177/0095327X0503100203
+files: []
+issn: 0095-327X
+journal: ARMED FORCES \& SOCIETY
+keywords-plus: 'BRITISH-ARMED-SERVICES; UNITED-STATES MILITARY; PARTICIPATION;
+
+  ENLISTMENTS; UNIFORM; FORCES'
+language: English
+month: WIN
+number: '2'
+number-of-cited-references: '41'
+pages: 201+
+papis_id: 6b508f65bc6511dbdd06b90f753240bc
+ref: Gifford2005combatcasualties
+researcherid-numbers: Baltutyte, Gerda/AGH-5630-2022
+times-cited: '35'
+title: 'Combat casualties and race: What can we learn from the 2003-2004 Iraq conflict?'
+type: Article
+unique-id: WOS:000227100600002
+usage-count-last-180-days: '0'
+usage-count-since-2013: '14'
+volume: '31'
+web-of-science-categories: Political Science; Sociology
+year: '2005'