wow-inequalities/02-data/intermediate/wos_sample/52fdd1faf8b6f13e162ea250c0165101-cislaghi-beniamino/info.yaml

abstract: 'BackgroundAlmost nowhere in the world do women participate as much as

  men in the labor force. Despite differences in countries'' economic,

  social and cultural contexts, gender norms-unwritten rules of acceptable

  actions for men and women-have been found to affect women''s labor

  participation across contexts. Gender norms include those regulating who

  takes care of children, who is expected to earn more, and in which

  sectors men and women should work. Importantly, norms affect access to

  labor markets at times of scarcity: when there''s only work for one,

  gender norms can dictate whether a woman or man gets the job. Advocates

  of equal labor force participation point to evidence that employment can

  contribute to people''s health and well-being; yet the evidence is mixed

  and contradictory, and mostly comes from high-income countries. In

  restrictive normative contexts in which women are assigned the role of

  family caretaker, full time employment (FTE) might be particularly

  burdensome. At the same time, the literature lacks a cross-country

  analysis of how gender norms affect women''s FTE and their health when

  employed full time, despite qualitative research providing clear

  evidence of the influence of gender norms on labor participation. AimsIn

  this paper we examine: (1) how gender norms affect women''s access to FTE

  across 97 countries; (2) associations between FTE and women''s

  self-reported health self-rated (SRH) across different normative

  contexts (i.e., countries where it is common vs. uncommon for women to

  stay home); and (3) how women''s FTE and gender norms changed over time

  in four countries. DataWe used time-series data from the World Values

  Survey and European Values Survey conducted in over 100 countries

  between 1981 and 2014. Both surveys attempt to capture norms, beliefs

  and values in addition to sociodemographic information among a

  nationally representative adult population in each country. The sample

  for the cross-sectional analyses (aims 1 and 2) included 97 countries

  and 131,132 respondents. The sample for aim 3 included data from

  Argentina, Egypt, Finland and Japan. VariablesOur outcome of interest

  was pro-equality norms in the context of access to the labor market for

  women. Respondents were asked ``if jobs are scarce, men should have more

  right to a job than women do?{''''}. Response options included no, neither

  or yes. We created a binary variable to represent pro-equality norms. We

  included employment status and SRH as exposures of interest. AnalysisWe

  used individual-level data to generate on-average and sex-stratified

  estimates of the outcome and exposures for each country, at each time

  point. We estimated the percentage of all respondents, of women, and of

  men who held pro-equality norms (believe that men should not have more

  right to a job than women), the percentage who were employed full time,

  and the average level of SRH. To measure gender inequality in FTE, we

  also estimated the absolute difference in FTE between women and men for

  each country at each time point. First, we conducted descriptive,

  cross-sectional ecological analyses using one survey per country from

  wave 5 or 6 (whichever was most recent) to examine associations between

  pro-equality norms and employment status as a proxy for associations

  between norms and the context of employment in each country. We also

  examined associations between pro-equality norms and SRH.

  We then specified adjusted logistic regression models with controls for

  age, sex and education to examine associations between pro-equality

  norms and employment status. To examine if the relationship between FTE

  and SRH varied by normative context, we grouped countries in quartiles

  of pro-equality norms. Finally, we conducted descriptive ecological

  analyses of the relationship between pro-equality norms and employment

  status over time in four countries. ResultsObjective 1: Gender norms

  intersect with socio-cultural contexts in determining women''s FTE. While

  in some countries gender norms aligned positively with women''s access to

  employment (i.e., more equal norms matched more equality in FTE), in

  Eastern Europe and South America we observed a mismatch. In Eastern

  Europe we found strong norms against equal access but small sex

  differences in FTE. In South America, we observed a stark difference in

  FTE favoring men, despite positive gender norms promoting women''s paid

  employment. Objective 2: We found the association between SRH and FTE to

  vary across normative contexts. For instance, while in Scandinavian

  countries it was protective to be a woman in FTE and harmful not to work

  full-time, we found the opposite effect in Middle Eastern countries.

  Objective 3: We found a general tendency to move toward greater equality

  in norms and FTE over time everywhere in the world. However, political

  and economic events can generate variations over time and setbacks in

  progress toward equality.We specifically looked at 4 countries:

  Argentina, Egypt, Finland and Japan and assessed the effects of

  economic, political and national legislative changes on FTE over time.

  ImplicationsThis paper contributes to the conversation on tensions

  between universal justice and contextual factors affecting one''s health.

  To achieve purposeful and global universal health and justice, policy

  makers and global health practitioners must design effective,

  context-relevant interventions that are deeply and transparently

  informed by the values they embody. As we strive to achieve global

  gender equality, its meanings and purposes will vary across contexts in

  ways that demand people-led conversations and interventions.'
affiliation: 'Cislaghi, B (Corresponding Author), London Sch Hyg \& Trop Med, Dept
  Global Hlth \& Dev, London, England.

  Cislaghi, Beniamino; Bhatia, Amiya; Horanieh, Nour, London Sch Hyg \& Trop Med,
  Dept Global Hlth \& Dev, London, England.

  Hallgren, Emma Sofia Thonander, Stanford Univ, Ctr Populat Hlth Sci, Sch Med, Palo
  Alto, CA USA.

  Weber, Ann M., Univ Nevada, Sch Community Hlth Sci, Reno, NV USA.

  Darmstadt, Gary L., Stanford Univ, Dept Pediat, Sch Med, Stanford, CA USA.'
article-number: '689815'
author: Cislaghi, Beniamino and Bhatia, Amiya and Hallgren, Emma Sofia Thonander and
  Horanieh, Nour and Weber, Ann M. and Darmstadt, Gary L.
author-email: ben.cislaghi@lshtm.ac.uk
author_list:
- family: Cislaghi
  given: Beniamino
- family: Bhatia
  given: Amiya
- family: Hallgren
  given: Emma Sofia Thonander
- family: Horanieh
  given: Nour
- family: Weber
  given: Ann M.
- family: Darmstadt
  given: Gary L.
da: '2023-09-28'
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.689815
files: []
issn: 1664-1078
journal: FRONTIERS IN PSYCHOLOGY
keywords: 'gender equality; gender norms; women empowerment; full-time employment;

  self-reported health (SRH)'
keywords-plus: 'WOMEN; UNEMPLOYMENT; FAMILY; PAY; DISCRIMINATION; INEQUALITY;

  PERCEPTION; EDUCATION; MANAGERS; FEMINISM'
language: English
month: MAY 31
number-of-cited-references: '85'
orcid-numbers: Darmstadt, Gary/0000-0002-7522-5824
papis_id: 4e3ead09a850c09d7a6f1e44bb03c8b3
ref: Cislaghi2022gendernorms
researcherid-numbers: 'Darmstadt, Gary/AAU-7488-2020

  '
times-cited: '3'
title: 'Gender Norms and Gender Equality in Full-Time Employment and Health: A 97-Country
  Analysis of the World Values Survey'
type: article
unique-id: WOS:000816371100001
usage-count-last-180-days: '7'
usage-count-since-2013: '18'
volume: '13'
web-of-science-categories: Psychology, Multidisciplinary
year: '2022'