afd-development-contexts/notes/uganda/2208161616_literature-water.md

[x] Naiga2015

• looks at effects of major policy shift from supply-driven to demand-driven approach in rural water provision (in 1990)
  • results:
    • rural safe water coverage improved slightly
    • operation and maintenance of water sources pose great challenge, impeding long-term access to safe water
    • abrupt and top-down imposed policy created competing signals from old and new policies
      • lead to uncertainty and ambiguity about responsibilities, rules, incentives
    • challenge is not only water provision approach but provision of consistent multi-actor and -level governance structure tying to past institutions and providing long-term motivation for local water users to contribute to water provision
  • Isingiro results:
    • Uganda: access to improved water source 44% (1990), 60% (2004), 66% (2010)
    • Uganda: urban household travels 0.2km, rural 0.8km to source (avg waiting time half an hour)
    • Isingiro: average distance to source 1.5km
    • Isingiro: only 53% of water sources surveyed were functional
      • 24% partly functional (low/intermittent yield)
      • 18% non-functional
      • blocked drainage channels for some of them leading to possible contamination
  • qualitative:
    • water generally responsibility of women
    • cost of user fees prohibite for some to participate
    • technology and ability to repair were expensive and usually far away (spare parts, resulted in delayed repairs)

[x] Cooper2016

• looks at vulnerability of rural farmers to climate events
• results:
  • wealthier farmers perceive drought as highest risk, poorer farmers extreme heavy rainfall
  • generally implemented many anticipatory and livelihood coping responses (54.7%), like food storage, livestock maintenance, planting drought-resistant varieties
    • some responses (45.4%) specific to individual climatic events
    • had no response to cope with rainfall variability
  • environmental degradation additional driver of vulnerability: soil infertility, pests, diseases; economic instability
  • farmers with more land, education, access to gov extension, non-farm livelihood, larger households, older age more capacity to buffer shock (through increased assets and entitlements)
  • inequality arises due to different abilities to be resilient toward climatic shock events

[x] Yikii2017 - food insecurity in wetlands area

• looks at prevalence and determining factors of food insecurity in wetland adjacent areas, (Isingiro)
• results:
  • ~93% of HHs in wetlands area food insecure
    • primary reasons: poverty,
    • low labor productivity (/unemployment)
    • low levels of education
  • HHs with fewer adult members more food secure than with more adults
  • HHs with more educated head more food secure than less education
  • requires govt promotion of:
    • food/nutrition education
    • income generating activities
    • drought resistant crop varieties
    • water conservation
  • or wetland degradation, malnutrition and income inequality may further rise

[x] Mulogo2018

• looks at access to water, sanitation, hygiene at health care facilities
  • 2010, Isingiro had 28% access to safe water
  • main supply technologies are public stand posts, protected spring technology, deep boreholes
  • rain harvesting tanks, gravity flow schemes, in some cases groundwater-based pubped piped water supply system present
• results:
  • of 282 health care facilities, 94% had improved sources (but some no improved source, some no source on the premises)

[x] Naiga2018 - community-based water management

• looks at relevant design principles in creating successful collective self-managed water management institutions, at Isingiro vs Sheema district
• results:
  • difference in water infrastructure management effectiveness primarily down to existence/absence of organizational characteristics prescribed in design principles
  • Isingiro: absence of conditions prescribed by design principles due confronted with lack of sufficient self-governance arrangements:
    • unclear social boundaries
    • missing collective-choice arrangements
    • lack of sanctions or conflict resolution mechanisms
  • Isingiro: should be regarded as 'vicious circle of institutional failures'

[x] Twongyirwe2019 - Perceived Food insecurity

• looks at perception of drought and food insecurity in Isingiro district
  • questionnaire for farmers in Isingiro district whose livelihood is predominantly dependent on crop production
• results:
  • 68.6% of HHs perceive food insecurity as problem
    • those not seeing it as problem had higher off-farm incomes and larger farm sizes
    • 'implies productive assets (e.g. land) can be easily translated into productive activies for higher income [...] while off-farm income could provide more choices in terms of food access' [9]
  • access to credit for crops increased food security status awareness
    • more likely to use credit as buffer against food insecurity
  • drought widely perceived as problem contributing to food insecurity (95.6%)
    • HHs believe most at-risk of drought-induced food insecurity
  • 13% reported to be 'doing nothing' to respond to drought effects

[x] Nagasha2019 - effect of droughts on gender roles

• looks at effect of climate change (more sever droughts) on gender roles around Lake Mburo National Park (Isingiro, Kiruhura districts)
• results:
  • men and women's gender roles altered during extreme dryness
  • men played roles sequentially focusing on one single reproductive role
  • women played roles simultaneously
    • often forced to engage children in work activities to balance own workload
    • Isingiro: female children more engaged with chores than male children
  • in Kiruhura district migration in search of water & pasture livestick, further distorting roles
  • Isingiro: men became more actively engaged in firewood collection (62.8%) and fetching water (45.9%)
  • women's exclusion from land ownership brings them further in state of dependence, thus more vulnerable to climate change effects

[x] Sempewo2021a

• looks at changes in water supply use (quantity) in Ugandan HHs (due to COVID-19)
  • most HHs had increase in water quantity usage
  • associated HH characteristics age, sex, education, main occupation of HH head, household size, region of residence
  • results can be used for equitable water supply during emergencies

[x] Sempewo2021 - willingness to pay for water during emergency

• looks at willingness to pay for access to improved water during COVID-19 (lockdown)
• results:
  • majority of households not willing to pay for water
  • sg explanatory variables: sex of HH head, region of residence, water source, number of times hands are washed, whether household already buys/pays for water
  • suggests increasing/even maintaining water revenue will be challenge in emergencies without addressing disparity in socio-economic attributes of HHs
  • INT: may also show possibility of one dimension of health inequality increase due to income inequality/poverty during emergency situations (e.g. extreme climate events)

[x] Atamanov2022 - see poverty for main part

• water access
  • general access to improved drinking water 87% urban, 74% rural (19/20); with only small amounts of inequality (75/74 rural poor/nonpoor; 76/90 poor/nonpoor)
  • but very little access to improved sanitation 39% urban, 25% urban; 19% rural poor, 29% nonpoor; 22% urban poor, 43% urban nonpoor (19/20)