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true true true true en Inequalities and the world of work Conceptual Definitions and Key Terms

Definitions

Defining the world of work

Work
"any activity performed by persons of any sex and age to produce goods or to provide services for use by others or for own use" [@ILO2013, p. 2].
"Work is defined irrespective of its formal or informal character or the legality of the activity" [@ILO2013, p. 2].
Employment
those in employment are "of working age who, during a reference period, were engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit" [@ILO2013, 6].
"For pay or profit refers to work done as part of a transaction in exchange for remuneration payable in the form of wages or salaries for time worked or work done, or in the form of profits derived from the goods and services produced through market transactions" [@ILO2013, 6].
key concepts
production of goods production/processing/collection of agricultural, fishing, hunting, gathering, mining, forestry, water, household goods, effecting major repairs/building additions to dwelling,farm buildings, etc.
provision of services provision of accounting, management, transport, meal preparation/serving, waste disposal/recycling, cleaning, decorating, dwelling/goods maintenance, childcare/-instruction, elderly/dependent person/pet/domestic animal care
use by others or own-use whether final products are destined mainly for final use by producer as capital formation or final consumption, or by others
for pay or profit as part of transaction in exchange for remuneration (wages/salary), or in form of profits from goods/services through market transactions
Informal economy
"economic activities carried out by workers and economic units that are --- in law or in practice --- not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements." [@ILO2002, p.14; @ILO2015, p.4,25]
"all remunerative work [...] that is not registered, regulated or protected by existing legal or regulatory frameworks, as well as non-remunerative work undertaken in an income-producing enterprise." [@ilo2003]
"does not cover illicit activities, in particular the provision of services or the production, sale, possession or use of goods forbidden by law" [@ILO2015, p.4]
Formal economy
sufficiently covered by formal arrangements, defined as "procedures established by the government to regulate the actions and functions of economic units and workers, as well as protecting their legal rights." [ILO, 2021, p.10]
Informal employment outside the informal sector
comprises employees holding informal jobs in formal sector enterprises, as paid domestic workers employed by households, contributing family workers working in formal sector enterprises, and own-account workers producing exclusively for own final use by their household [@ILO2023b]
Labour underutilization
are "mismatches between labour supply and demand which translate into an unmet need for employment among the population" [@ILO2013, 9]
can be "time-related underemployment, when the working time of persons in employment is insufficient in relation to alternative employment situations in which they are willing and available to engage" [@ILO2013, 9]
can be "unemployment, reflecting an active job search by persons not in employment" [@ILO2013, 9]
can be "potential labour force, [those] not in employment who express an interest in this form of work but for whom existing conditions limit their active job search and/or their availability." [@ILO2013, 9]
key concepts
remuneration see 'for pay or profit' above
formal arrangements protection of legal rights, regulation of actions/functions of economic units
legality of activity while concept of 'work' covers acitivities regardless of illicit status, informal economy excludes illicit activities
utilization of labor described various states of labour supply and demand mismatch such as unemployment, time-related underemployment, and potential labour force

Defining forms of work

"five mutually exclusive forms of work are identified for separate measurement" [@ILO2013, 3]

own-use production work
comprising production of goods and services for own final use
"all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any activity to produce goods or provide services for own final use." [@ILO2013, 5]
employment work
comprising work performed for others in exchange for pay or profit
"all those of working age who, during a short reference period, were engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit" [@ILO2013, 6]
unpaid trainee work
comprising work performed for others without pay to acquire workplace experience or skills
"all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid activity to produce goods or provide services for others, in order to acquire workplace experience or skills in a trade or profession" [@ILO2013, 7]
volunteer work
comprising non-compulsory work performed for others without pay
"all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid, non-compulsory activity to produce goods or provide services for others"
other work activities
not defined in this resolution
key concepts
intensity of participation how many hours/days work occupies in a certain time frame
own-use/other-use see above
for pay or profit see above
non-compulsory undertaken without civil, legal, administrative requirement and different from fulfilment of social responsibilities of communal, cultural or religious nature

Defining inequality

Vertical inequality
"income inequality between all households in a country" [@ILO2021]
"the debate on vertical inequalities has increasingly focused on how, in many countries, the richest 1 per cent or the top 10 per cent of income earners have improved their situation compared to the poorest 99 per cent or bottom 90 per cent." [@ILO2021a]
Horizontal inequality
"Horizontal inequalities occur when some groups within the population find themselves disadvantaged and discriminated against on the basis of their visible identity, for example their gender, colour or beliefs, among others" [@ILO2021a]
"public attention has incerasingly been devoted to racial or ethnic inequalities, and to the rifts between migrants and nationals."
"Spatial inequalities between rural and urban areas and, more recently, between large mega-cities and smaller, more peripheral, cities have also been studied with increasing concern"
"also refers to disparities in employment outcomes, labour rights and opportunities between groups depending on their gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, health status, disability or other characteristics"
Intersectionality
"captures the complex way in which inequalities based on different personal characteristics overlap and accumulate [and] particular dynamics of inequality appear where people belong to multiple disadvantaged groups." [@ILO2021a]
Equality of opportunities
"seeks to level the playing field so that gender, ethnicity, birthplace, family background and other caracteristics that are beyond an individual's control do not influence or harm a person's future perspective" [@ILO2021a]
"ensuring that all people are 'equally enabled to make the best of such powers as they possess'" [@ILO2021a]
Equality of outcomes
"a focus on opportunities [...] should not distract from the importance of observed inequality of outcomes." [@ILO2021a]
"high levels of inequality make it much more difficult to ensure equal opportunities for the next generation [since] high levels of inequality today tend to reduce social mobility tomorrow." [@ILO2021a]
key concepts
within-group/between-group inequality the horizontal or vertical nature of inequality, existing as income inequality between all households in a country (vertical) or when some population groups are disadvantaged/discriminated against (horizontal)
overlapping characteristics all inequalities can be intersectional through individuals' overlapping disadvantaged characteristics or situations
enabling of opportunity/outcome equality two philosophies of seeking equality, by either providing a 'level playing field' (opportunity) or ensuring equality in the resulting situations (outcome)

Missing:

  • difference between relative and absolute inequality (see @Ravallion2018, 637)

Inequalities in the world of work

Income Inequality

  • main focus point of many inequality measurements (e.g. Gini Coefficient, Palma Ratio) [UN, 2023, A call to action to save SDG10, Policy Brief]
  • "labour income is the main source of income for most households in the world [thus] unequal access to work and working poverty are major drivers of inequalities" [@ILO2021]
  • "Income inequality, inequality of employment outcomes more generally and inequality of opportunities are intimately related" [@ILO2022b]
  • "To some extent, therefore, income inequality is like a prism, which reveals many other forms of inequality, including those generated in the world of work" [@ILO2021a, 13].
  • "Throughout the world, earnings inequality is also determined by a set of other factors, including status in employment (whether a worker is a wage employee or self-employed), sector of activity and occupation, enterprise type, type of contract (for wage earners), and often formality" [@ILO2019].

Other forms of inequality

Inequalities are always multi-faceted, complex and display intersectional qualities [@ILO2021a]:

Gender inequality

These are inequalities that arise because of an individual's gender:

  • while type and extent of inequalities varies by country, "gender inequalities, despite some progress over the past decades, remain persistent and pervasive" [@ILO2021].
  • "women everywhere still face high barriers in entering, remaining and progressing in the labour market, while continuing to bear most of the responsibility for unpaid care work" [@ILO2022b].
  • "hinders not only access to education, training and lifelong learning, but also access to quality jobs, housing, mobility, land and capital, as well as social protection" [@ILO2021].
  • more women, globally, work in underemployment, contribute disproportionally to family work, work shorter hours in employment but have longer working days when including unpaid work, are increasingly employed in services sectors, and still suffer a substantial wage gap [@ILO2016]
  • "Domestic work is female-dominated, with women accounting for 76.2 per cent of domestic workers" and domestic work, in turn is overwhelmingly informal employment globally [@ILO2023a, 6].
  • "Disparities in the gendered division of unpaid care work and paid work are the result of deeply rooted inequalities based on gender roles, income, age, education and place of residence" [@ILO2019].

Socio-demographic inequalities

These are inequalities that, like gender inequality, are based on the innate, often visible, identification of a person.

Examples are: ethnic, racial inequalities, or those based on religion and beliefs, migrant status, age, sex, or disabilities. [@ILO2021a, 11-12]

  • "the incidence of temporary employment is generally higher among youths" [@ILO2019].
  • "Women and young people fare significantly worse in labour markets, an indication of the large inequalities within the world of work in many countries." [@ILO2023]
  • "In the EU28, some 7% of workers felt they had been discriminated against in the 12 months prior to the survey on grounds of sex, race, religion, age, nationality, disability or sexual orientation" [@ILO2019].

Spatial inequality

These are inequalities that arise because of an individual's location relative to others:

  • "between urban, rural and peripheral areas and richer and poorer regions [...] contribute to inequalities in the world of work, as well as to a growing sense of fractured societies" [@ILO2021]
  • due to "unequal access to economic and decent work opportunities, to finance, quality public services, quality education and relevant training, essential social services infrastructures and digital infrastructure" [@ILO2021]

Pre-existing inequalities

These are inequalities that exist before the labor market enters the picture for an individual and, while intertwined with socio-demographic inequalities, may be useful to differentiate:

  • "some inequalities arise well before individuals enter the world of work and addressing them is key to reducing inequalities in the labour market and beyond" [@ILO2021a]
  • "inequality in household incomes [...] reflects many other correlated or underlying forms of inequality [such as] inequality of opportunity, or inequality of access to health services or education, for example." [@ILO2021a, 13]
  • "the world of work plays an important role in reducing inequalities, including in terms of intergenerational social mobility" [@ILO2021]
  • "they also relate to the characteristics [...] such as the level of education, poverty or productivity and, of course, their underlying factors." [@ILO2021a]
  • "underlying factors are numerous and include the lack of formal recognition as an individual (the lack of a birth certificate or identity card), the lack of property rights or of clear ownership of assets, or the lack of access to formal banking, all of which are both a form of inequality and increase other forms of inequality." [@ILO2021a]

The scale of inequalities

  • globally, between countries (vertical)
  • national inequalities, between all households in one country (vertical)
  • regional, between urban/rural divides; poor/rich regions (horizontal: spatial)
  • households, between households with different access to education/essential services/infrastructures (horizontal: spatial)
  • individuals, between persons based on (visible/invisible) characteristics (horizontal: gender, spatial, pre-existing, ...)

COVID-19 influence

  • "[Post COVID-19] recovery patterns vary significantly across regions, countries and sectors [and] the impact has been particularly serious for developing nations that experienced higher levels of inequality, more divergent working conditions and weaker social protection systems even before the pandemic." [@ILO2022a]
  • "The pandemic is deepening various forms of inequality, from exacerbating gender inequity to widening the digital divide." [@ILO2022a]

Outcomes of inequalities

  • "[inequalities] slow economic growth and poverty reduction, undermine social mobility and increase the risk of social unrest and political instability [as well as] contribute to the intergenerational transmission of poverty and social exclusion" [@ILO2022b]
  • "forms of inequality can be also among the root causes of child labour and forced or compulsory labour in all its forms." [@ILO2021]

Inequalities' impact on employment outcomes

  • unemployment: forecloses income prospects
  • underemployment:
    • low wages make meeting basic needs impossible (esp. food, healthcare, education, decent housing)
    • split into 'time-related underemployment' (wanting more hourly paid work) and 'potential labour force' (not actively looking or not able to work)
  • inequality of job quality (achievement of decent work)
    • "concerns first and foremost those working in the informal economy", who may experience reduced social protection, productivity, job security, wages and earnings [@ILO2021a]
    • "many are in forms of work, such as part-time work, fixed-term contracts and working through private employment agencies, that can offer a stepping stone to employment [but] may give rise to decent work deficits when, among other reasons, they are not regulated well" or used to circumvent legal obligations or without adequate labour/social protection [@ILO2021]
    • "Job quality features are also positively associated with enterprise performance, productivity and innovation, [...] reducing sickness absence and the loss of productivity due to working while sick. In addition, job quality contributes to developing organisational commitment and motivation among workers, as well as shaping a climate that is supportive of creativity and the development of the workforce" [@ILO2019].
  • other employment outcomes affected:
    • overall labor force participation: exclusion from labour market or the ability towards full utilization of labour market opportunities [@ILO2021a; @ILO2019]
    • ultimately resulting in income inequalities, in turn becoming driver of subsequent inequal outcomes and barriers in the labour market (as well as outside the labour market), reducing inter-generational social mobility [@ILO2021]

ILO Policy typology

identified in @ILO2021 and @ILO2022b:

  • attention to root causes
  • addressing both distribution and redistribution
    • original distribution highly affected by inequalities on labour market
    • preventing both vertical/horizontal inequalities requires redistribution through taxes and transfers
  • fundamental principles and rights and international labour standards
  • social dialogue and tripartism
  • interconnectedness, integration and monitoring
  • country-specific approaches

Policy areas

guiding principles

main policy areas identified [@ILO2022b]:

Policy areas, identified by @ILO2022b:

  • employment creation
  • business sustainability promotion
    • pro-employment framework
    • gender-transformative framework
    • promote:
      • business sustainability
      • productivity increases
      • reduction in productivity gaps
    • digital infrastructure
    • technology for decent work
    • tackling digital divide
  • access to education
    • quality of education/training/skills development
    • relevance of education/training/skills development
    • green transition
    • digital transition
    • gender-transformative career guidance
    • improvements of public services/social protection
    • work-life balance ('juggle paid work and family care')
    • targeted support for disadvantaged groups
  • labour right protection
    • promotion of rights for all workers
    • minimum wage
    • collective bargaining systems
    • equal pay for work of equal value
    • wage transparency
    • inclusive labour market institutions
  • formalization
    • approaching informality:
      • gender-responsive
      • country-tailored
      • comprehensive
      • non-discriminatory
    • increase decent work in formal economy
    • absorb informal workers / economic units
  • gender equality
    • removal of stereotypes
    • removal of discriminatory law
    • removal of discriminatory practice
    • promotion of equality of treatment
    • promotion of equality of opportunity
    • data disaggregated by
      • gender
      • age
      • disability
      • race
      • ethnicity
      • migrant status
    • occupational gender segregation
    • unequal pay for work of equal value
    • gender-based violence
    • gender-based harassment
    • gender unequal division of unpaid care work
  • trade development
    • avoid severe economic fluctuations
    • ensure price stability
    • promotion of high volume of trade
    • promotion of steady volume of trade
    • fundamental principles and rights at work
    • responsible business practices
  • social protection
    • extend reach of social protection schemes
    • reach those not adequately protected
    • ensure access for everyone to:
      • comprehensive SP
      • adequate SP
      • sustainable SP

Employment creation

  • pro-employment, gender-transformative macroeconomic framework
  • enabling business environment promoting sustainable enterprise,productivity increases, reductions in productivity gaps
  • digital infrastructure investments for potential of technology for decent work and tackling digital divide
  • just transition minimizing impacts of environmental changes on employment
  • effective active labour market policies enabling employment for vulnerable and disadvantaged

Equal access to education/training/quality public services from early childhood

  • improvements to quality and relevance of education, training, skills development
  • responsive to labour market needs, changing WoW demands, green/digital transitions, demographic changes
  • gender-transformative career guidance on e.g. STEM
  • improvements to quality of public services, social protection to juggle paid work & family care
  • targeted support for disadvantaged groups

Adequate protection of all workers and a fair share of the fruits of growth

  • promotion of fundamental principles and rights at work for all workers
  • adequate minimum wage (Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970, No 131)
  • implementation of collective bargaining systems
  • equal pay for work of equal value, wage transparency
  • effective/inclusive labour market institutions, e.g. relevant inspectorates

Transition to the formal economy

  • comprehensive, country-tailored, gender-responsive, non-discriminatory strategies tackling drivers of informality
  • combination of interventions increasing ability of formal economy to provide decent work opportunities, absorption of current informal workers&economic units
  • strengthening ability of people/enterprises to enter formal economy through incentives and elimination of barriers

Gender equality and non-discrimination, equality for all, diversity and inclusion

  • removal of stereotypes, discriminatory laws and practices, including at workplace
  • promotion of positive/transformative measures ensuring equality of treatment&opportunities
  • more available data disaggregated by gender,age,disability,race,ethnicity,migrant status to monitor policy impacts
  • combined policy responses within/-out labour market against: occupational gender segregation, unequal pay for work of equal value, gender-based violence/harassment, gender unequal division of unpaid care work

Trade and development for a fair globalization and shared prosperity

  • full cooperation with relevant international bodies to avoid severe economic fluctuations, ensure price stability
  • promotion of high and steady volume of intl. trade
  • promotion/application of fundamental principles and rights at work through trade agreements/in supply chains, alongside responsible business practices

Universal and adequate social protection

  • extension of reach of national social protection systems
  • reach those not adequately protected
  • ensure access for everyone to comprehensive, adequate, sustainable social protection over life cycle

Search Protocol

Inclusion criteria

Parameter Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Language study written in English study not written in English
Time frame study published in or after 2000 study published before 2000
Study type primary research opinion piece, editorial, commentary, news article, literature review
Study approach rigorous quantitative analysis or multi-method approach purely qualitative or no clear description of methodology
Study focus labour market outcomes or inequalities as primary measures (dependent variable) neither inequality nor labour market outcomes as dependent variable
policy measure or strategy as intervention (independent variable) no policy measure/strategy as independent variable or relationship unclear
specifically relates intervention to at least one dimension of world of work exists outside world of work for both independent and dependent variables
focus on at least one dimension of inequality in analysis no focus on mention of inequality in analysis

: Study inclusion and exclusion scoping criteria {#tbl-inclusion-criteria}

Matrix extraction properties

Publication info Description
author
year
title
publisher
url/doi
?discipline? The overall discipline the study falls under
Context info Description
country What is the primary/are the primary country/countries under analysis in the study? (set:txt)
country_world_region Which ILO region does the country belong to? (set:txt)
country_income_class Which UN Bank income category does the country belong to? (set:txt)
period_of_analysis What is the main period of analysis for the study (in years, e.g. 2010-2012)? (timedelta)
length_of_study What is the main length of observation for the study, if mentioned (in months, e.g. 14 months)? (timedelta)
explicit_targeting is intervention specifically (explicitly) targeted at population/group? (bool:0/1)
target_group who is the intervention targeted at (explicitly/implicitly)? (list:txt)
data What dataset/database/collection does the data stem from, if mentioned? (list:txt)
Results info Description
interventions what are the independent variables for the study? (list:txt)
inequality_type which inequalities/dimensions of inequality are objects of analysis for the study? (list:txt)
inequality_direction Is the main inequality looked at of horizontal or vertical type? (0: vertical; 1: horizontal)
outcome_measures what are the dependent variables looked at in the study? (list:txt)
findings what are the main findings for the dependent variables? (list:txt)
channels What are the main channels for outcomes identified, if mentioned? (list:txt)
theory What is the main theoretical argument/grounding for the study, if mentioned? (list:txt)
limitations What are the main limitations of the study, if mentioned? (list:txt)
Statistical info Description
study_design Is the study mainly of experimental, quasi-experimental, qualitative, mixed design? (set:txt)
study_method What is the main method of the study? (list:txt)
sample_size What is the main sample size/observation number of the study? (numeric)
representativeness At what level is the study mainly representative? (national, subnational, rural, urban..) (list:txt)
direction What is the main direction of relation between independent/dependent variables? (0: negative, 1: positive)
significance What is the main level of statistical significance? (2: significant, 1: marginally significant, 0: non significant)
  • annotation, quick 100-300wd written summary of major properties found above for each study

Search Term clusters

World-of-work cluster

  • ILO:
    • work
    • production of goods, provision of services
    • use by others or own-use
    • regardless of legality
    • labour
    • production of goods, provision of services,
    • use by others
    • of working age
    • for pay or profit (remuneration, wages, salaries for time worked work done, profits derived from goods or services, through market transactions)

forms of work cluster

  • ILO
    • own-use
    • employment
    • unpaid trainee
    • volunteer
    • other work activities
    • domestic
    • wage-employed
    • self-employed
    • formality
    • (unpaid) care work

inequality cluster

  • ILO:
    • inequality/-ies
    • barrier(s)
    • (dis)advantaged
    • discriminated
    • disparity/-ies
    • horizontal / vertical inequality

vertical inequalities cluster

  • ILO/UN [@DFI2023]
    • income:
      • Palma ratio
      • Gini coefficient

horizontal inequalities cluster

  • ILO:
    • visible identity
    • demographic inequalities
    • gender, colour or beliefs
    • racial, ethnic inequalities
    • migrants and nationals
    • spatial inequalities (rural/urban/large mega-cities/small/peripheral cities)
    • gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, health status, disability, characteristics

outcome cluster

  • ILO:
    • employment outcomes
    • labour rights
    • opportunities between groups
    • equality of opportunity/outcome

@Finlay2021:

  • labour force participation [also, @Pinto2021]
  • job quality
  • career advancement
  • hours worked

@Silvaggi2020:

  • labour force exit
  • retrurning to work issues

policy cluster

  • general terms:
    • intervention
    • policy
    • participation
    • targeting/targeted
    • distributive (restrained capitalism)
      • equitable income dist
    • redistributive

Terms, identified by @ILO2022b:

  • employment creation
  • business sustainability promotion
  • digital infrastructure promotion
  • green transition promotion
  • ensuring quality of education
  • career guidance
  • public service improvement
  • work-life balance promotion
  • labour rights protection
  • minimum wage
  • collective bargaining
  • equal pay for work of equal value
  • counteracting of stereotypes
  • removal of discriminatory law
  • lowering of gender segregation
  • price stability intervention
  • extended social protection scheme
  • ensuring of adequate (comprehensive,sustainable) social protection

from @Perez2022:

  • credit programs
  • institutional support for childcare
  • guaranteed minimum income
  • universal basic income
  • provision of living wage
  • commuting subsidies
  • housing mobility programs
  • encouragement of migration/re-situation

@Silvaggi2020:

  • vocational rehabilitation

@Lettieri2017, disability:

  • vocational rehabilitation
  • supported employment
  • cognitive behavioural therapy
  • computer-assisted therapy

@Nevala2015, disability:

  • workplace accomodation
    • vocational counselling/guidance
    • education/self-advocacy
    • help of others
    • changes in work schedules
    • work organization
    • special transportation
    • work aids/techniques
    • cooperation of employer & professionals

Notes on previous reviews

Perez2022

summary: multi-disciplinary systematic review of association between income, employment, urban poverty. n=243 articles, academic focus on advanced economies; finds significant role of employment in life of urban poor;

findings: most relevant barriers for improving labour market outcomes: lack of access to public transport, geographical segregation, labour informality, inadequate human capital

[@Perez2022] identify a multitude of factors which ultimately affect income, employment and urban poverty. Among them: gender inequality, through traditional gender roles and lack of empowerment, a lack of childcare, or inequal domestic work; low human capital, which can originate through pre-existing inequalities, spatial inequality, through lack of access to transportation, residential segregation or discrimination, limited access to work, the inter-generational persistence of poverty as well as the impacts of pre-existing inequalities such as lower human capital or larger household sizes;

and external factors such as extreme weather events or inflation.

Strategies to reduce poverty/unemployment are: participation in informal sectors or illegal activities, credit programs, consumption from informal food sources, family and institutional support for childcare, guaranteed minimum income or universal basic income and/or living wage, income diversification, commuting subsidies, housing mobility programs, and migration.

Zeinali2021

systematic review of female leadership in health sector (LMICs) using intersectional analysis

main findings: main barriers at intersection of gender and social identity of professional cadre, race/ethnicity, financial status, culture; main barriers limiting women's access to career development resources: mentorship, sponsorship opportunities, reduce value, recognition, respect at work for women; channels: increased likelihood for women to take on 'dual burdens' professional work and childcare/domestic work, biased views effectiveness of men/women's leadership styles.

Pinto2021

systematic review of impact of basic income interventions (n=86; 10 different interventions) on labour market, health, educational, housing and other outcomes

main findings: workforce participation was main dependent variable for studies, evaluation shift over time to include wider array of outcomes reflecting reigning perspective of BI investments possibly lowering health & social care spending; large focus on advanced economies (US)

Finlay2001

narrative review of connection between women's reproductive health and women's economic activity (and gender equality); looking at (causal) effect of fertility (timing, spacing, number of children) on female labour force participation changes (career advancement, job quality, hours worked); separation between LI,MI,HI countries

main findings:

  • low-inc countries women have to adopt individual strategies of balancing child rearing and labour force part. through selection of job type, relying on other household women for childcare, birth spacing due to mostly informal work
  • middle-inc countries women have to juggle child rearing, labour force part. with overall income inequality; early childbearing and lone motherhood perpetuate poverty
  • high-inc countries, SP policies can assist women in managing childrearing and work balance but underlying issues of gender inequality remain
  • all: childbearing interrupts career advancement

Chaudhuri2021

systematic review on effects of food insecurity (common byproduct of poverty) on health and social outcomes, focusing on women and children

main findings: - female coping behaviours are non-food (livelihood alterations: outdoor employment, asset base selling, borrowing food/money, purchasing food on credit) or food-based (reducing daily intake sizes/frequency, food rationing; nutritional switch; food sharing); - (obligatory) outdoor employment mostly as farm labourers, can result in time poverty - children coping behaviours are begging, stealing, food seeking (with relatives/friends/charitable institutions), dropping out of school - health outcome includes disrupted socio-cognitive development among children

Chang2021

systematic qualitative review of effects of return to paid employment and breast-feeding (n=26)

main findings: women experienced physical and emotional difficulties, described gender and employment inequalities in accessing and receiving the support they needed; importance of having workplace legislation in place (and individual motivation) to facilitate breastfeeding during employment; support from employers/colleagues/family members & access to convenient child care helped facilitate breast feeding on return to paid employment

channels: - gender role expectations viewing women as responsible for domestic work or childcare (especially in LMICs) - shorter maternity leave times discourage decision towards breast-feeding

Silvaggi2020

systematic review looking at effect of brain tumors on on work ability of those affected (and BT survivors) (n=7)

main findings: impact of neuropsychological functioning on work productivity, change of employment status for long-term survivors (?most often? job loss), issues related to return to work process

channels: depressive symptoms/cognitive deficits, high short-term mortality, environmental barriers

policy recc: vocational rehabilitation

dePaz-Banez2020

systematic review of effects of UBI on labour supply (n=38)

main finding: not found any evidence of significant reduction in labour supply, instead labour supply increases globally among adults, men, women, young, old; some insignificant (functional) reductions for: children, elderly, sick, those with disabilities, women with young children to look after, young people who continued studying - do not reduce overall supply since offset by otherwise increased supply

Lindsay2018a

systematic review of role of gender in employment for disabled young adults (n=48)

main finding: - majority (21) reported young men with disabilities better employment outcomes than women, fewer (8) showed reverse, minority (5) reported no difference - men with disabilities often work more hours and have higher wages - youth with disabilities half as likely to be employed as typically developing peers; starting life with disability often compounds disadvantages

channels: - social supports - gender role expectations - lowered expectations - overprotection from parents/guardians discouraging independence

Kumari2018

systematic review looking at relationship of female labour force participation and economic growth, gender disparity in work participation

main findings: U-shaped part. rate; evidence of gender pay disparity across sectors

channels affecting FLFP: - demographic factors (fertility, migration, marriages, child care) - economic factors (unemployment, per capita income, non-farm job, infrastructure) - regulatory context (family and childcare policies, tax regimes, presence of subsidized healthcare)

policy recc: changes to FLFP require replacement of traditional value system based on inequality of sexes (with females playing subordinate role)

Ugur2017

systematic review of effects of technology adoption on employment (in LMIC/LIC 'less developed countries')

main findings: positive effect more likely when technology adoption favours product innovation not process innovation and when it is is skill based

additional: - techn. adoption less likely to create employment when: related to farm employment not firm/industry employment; related to low-income countries not LMICs; related to data from after 2001 instead of pre-2001 - intl trade, weak forward/backward linkages, weaknesses in governance & labor market institutions can weak job-creating effects of technology adoption

inequality: - existing income inequalities makes effect of technology adoption on employment creation more ambiguous (potentially widening rift of demand for skilled versus unskilled labour) - green revolution technologies tend to reduce income/wealth inequality; also negative effect on on-farm employment

Lettieri2017

meta-review of barriers (and drivers) of inclusion into the labour market for people with disabilities (mental illness)

main findings: employment outcomes seem increased for individuals able to hide their mental illness, practice of concealment of identity

channels: - prejudices: of missing skills, danger, unpredictability; of hiring as act of charity due to being unproductive; of work stress as contradicting requirements of mental health - discriminatory hiring practices - generally low-skilled individuals due to discrimination/cultural/social barriers for training and work inclusion

policy recc: - supported employment (environmental) - cognitive behavioural/computer-assisted therapies (cognitive) - vocational rehabilitation programs (human capital)

Taukobong2016

(narrative?) review of effects of dimensions of female 'empowerment' on health outcomes and development outcomes, such as access to and use of financial services

main findings: - gender inequalities highly contextual (and intersectional), requires identification of variations at start of interventions where inequalities exist, overlap and work as barriers to its implementation - strong association with improved outcomes across multiple outcome sectors: control over income/assets/resources, decision-making power, education - relation with health/family planning outcomes: mobility, personal safety, equitable interpersonal relationships

Ruhindwa2016

(narrative) review of barriers to workforce inclusion (paid/volunteer work) for people with disabilities; summary of findings

main findings: - "effective practice takes an inclusive approach and allows clients to take ownership of solutions in relation to addressing the challenges they experience in the employment sector"

policy recc: - employment support practices - campaigns to encourage disclosing disability

Kirsh2016

review of factors influencing LM outcomes of supported employment interventions for people with disabilities

main findings: - most employment support literature only looks at overall efficacy of interventions, with little prudence for intersectional inequality variations

inequalities: - men more likely to be employed (argue possibly due to manual labour of many jobs) - older people less likely to be employed (age+, change-) - older women more likely to be employed than men - education very important in employment outcomes

policy recc: - vocational rehabilitation

Hastbacka2016

scoping review of linkages between societal participation and people with disabilities for identity of participant, type of participation, type of facilitators and barriers; focus on European countries (n=32, between 2012-2013)

main findings: strongest focus on labour market participation; social participation viewed through lens of disabled people as one group instead of intersectional

main barriers: financial factors, attitudes, health issues, unemployment main facilitators: legislation and disability policies; support from people in close contact with disabled people, attitudes in society and employment opportunities for people with disabilities

Nevala2015

systematic review looking at effectiveness of workplace accommodation (vocational counselling/guidance, education/self-advocacy, help of others, changes in work schedules, work organization, special transportation) on employment, work ability, cost-benefit, rtw (n=11)

main findings: - moderate evidence that employment among physically disabled persons promoted by: vocational counselling/guidance, education/self-advocacy, help of others, changes in work schedules, work organisation, special transportation - low evidence that rtw increased for physical/cognitive disabilities by: liaison (btw employer and other professionals), education, work aids, work techniques

barrier/facilitators: self-advocacy, support of employer and community, amount of training/counselling, flexibility of work schedules/organisation

Database Query

Other reviews queried databases

from @Pinto2021:

  • Scopus
  • Embase
  • Medline
  • CINAHL
  • WOS
  • ProQuest
  • EBSCOhost Research DB
  • PsycINFO

WOS

TS=
(
    (
        work OR
        labor
    ) AND
    (
        production of goods OR
        provision of services OR
        use by others OR
        own-use OR
        for pay OR
        for profit OR
        remunerated OR
        for wages OR
        waged OR
        for salaries OR
        salaried OR
        for time worked OR
        for work done OR
        profits derived OR
        through market transactions
    )
) AND

TS=
(
    employment OR
    unpaid trainee OR
    volunteer OR
    domestic work OR
    wage-employed OR
    self-employed OR
    formal employment OR
    informal employment OR
    unpaid care work OR
    care work
) AND

TS=(
    intervention OR
    policy OR
    policies OR
    participation OR
    targeting OR
    targeted
) AND

TS=
(
    inequality OR
    inequalities OR
    barriers OR
    advantaged OR
    disadvantaged OR
    discriminated OR
    disparity OR
    disparities
) AND

TS=
(
    income OR
    identity OR
    gender OR
    beliefs OR
    color OR
    racial OR
    ethnic OR
    ethnicity OR
    migrant OR
    nationality OR
    spatial AND
    (
        rural OR
        urban OR
        mega-city OR
        large city OR
        small city OR
        peripheral city
    ) OR
    age AND
    (
        young OR
        youth OR
        old OR
        senior
    ) OR
    disability OR
    health status OR
    education OR
    educational access OR
    social mobility
) AND

TS=(
    employment outcome OR
    labor rights OR
    opportunities between groups OR
    equality of opportunity OR
    equality of outcome OR
    labour market outcome OR
    income OR
    job quality
)

\pagebreak

Relevant references

::: {#refs} :::