: those in employment are "of working age who, during a reference period, were engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit" [@ILO2013, 6].
: "For pay or profit refers to work done as part of a transaction in exchange for remuneration payable in the form of wages or salaries for time worked or work done, or in the form of profits derived from the goods and services produced through market transactions" [@ILO2013, 6].
| production of goods | production/processing/collection of agricultural, fishing, hunting, gathering, mining, forestry, water, household goods, effecting major repairs/building additions to dwelling,farm buildings, etc. |
| provision of services | provision of accounting, management, transport, meal preparation/serving, waste disposal/recycling, cleaning, decorating, dwelling/goods maintenance, childcare/-instruction, elderly/dependent person/pet/domestic animal care
| use by others or own-use | whether final products are destined *mainly* for final use by producer as capital formation or final consumption, or by others |
| for pay or profit | as part of transaction in exchange for remuneration (wages/salary), or in form of profits from goods/services through market transactions |
: "economic activities carried out by workers and economic units that are --- in law or in practice --- not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements." [@ILO2002, p.14; @ILO2015, p.4,25]
: "all remunerative work [...] that is not registered, regulated or protected by existing legal or regulatory frameworks, as well as non-remunerative work undertaken in an income-producing enterprise." [@ilo2003]
: "does not cover illicit activities, in particular the provision of services or the production, sale, possession or use of goods forbidden by law" [@ILO2015, p.4]
: sufficiently covered by formal arrangements, defined as "procedures established by the government to regulate the actions and functions of economic units and workers, as well as protecting their legal rights." [ILO, 2021, p.10]
: comprises employees holding informal jobs in formal sector enterprises, as paid domestic workers employed by households, contributing family workers working in formal sector enterprises, and own-account workers producing exclusively for own final use by their household [@ILO2023b]
: are "mismatches between labour supply and demand which translate into an unmet need for employment among the population" [@ILO2013, 9]
: can be "*time-related underemployment*, when the working time of persons in employment is insufficient in relation to alternative employment situations in which they are willing and available to engage" [@ILO2013, 9]
: can be "*unemployment*, reflecting an active job search by persons not in employment" [@ILO2013, 9]
: can be "*potential labour force*, [those] not in employment who express an interest in this form of work but for whom existing conditions limit their active job search and/or their availability." [@ILO2013, 9]
| formal arrangements | protection of legal rights, regulation of actions/functions of economic units |
| legality of activity | while concept of 'work' covers acitivities regardless of illicit status, informal economy excludes illicit activities |
| utilization of labor | described various states of labour supply and demand mismatch such as unemployment, time-related underemployment, and potential labour force |
: "all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any activity to produce goods or provide services for own final use." [@ILO2013, 5]
: "all those of working age who, during a short reference period, were engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit" [@ILO2013, 6]
: "all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid activity to produce goods or provide services for others, in order to acquire workplace experience or skills in a trade or profession" [@ILO2013, 7]
: comprising non-compulsory work performed for others without pay
: "all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid, non-compulsory activity to produce goods or provide services for others"
other work activities
: not defined in this resolution
| key concepts | |
| --- | --- |
| intensity of participation | how many hours/days work occupies in a certain time frame |
| own-use/other-use | see above |
| for pay or profit | see above |
| non-compulsory | undertaken without civil, legal, administrative requirement and different from fulfilment of social responsibilities of communal, cultural or religious nature |
: "income inequality between all households in a country" [@ILO2021]
: "the debate on vertical inequalities has increasingly focused on how, in many countries, the richest 1 per cent or the top 10 per cent of income earners have improved their situation compared to the poorest 99 per cent or bottom 90 per cent." [@ILO2021a]
: "Horizontal inequalities occur when some groups within the population find themselves disadvantaged and discriminated against on the basis of their visible identity, for example their gender, colour or beliefs, among others" [@ILO2021a]
: "public attention has incerasingly been devoted to racial or ethnic inequalities, and to the rifts between migrants and nationals."
: "Spatial inequalities between rural and urban areas and, more recently, between large mega-cities and smaller, more peripheral, cities have also been studied with increasing concern"
: "also refers to disparities in employment outcomes, labour rights and opportunities between groups depending on their gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, health status, disability or other characteristics"
: "captures the complex way in which inequalities based on different personal characteristics overlap and accumulate [and] particular dynamics of inequality appear where people belong to multiple disadvantaged groups." [@ILO2021a]
: "seeks to level the playing field so that gender, ethnicity, birthplace, family background and other caracteristics that are beyond an individual's control do not influence or harm a person's future perspective" [@ILO2021a]
: "ensuring that all people are 'equally enabled to make the best of such powers as they possess'" [@ILO2021a]
: "a focus on opportunities [...] should not distract from the importance of observed inequality of outcomes." [@ILO2021a]
: "high levels of inequality make it much more difficult to ensure equal opportunities for the next generation [since] high levels of inequality today tend to reduce social mobility tomorrow." [@ILO2021a]
| within-group/between-group inequality | the horizontal or vertical nature of inequality, existing as income inequality between all households in a country (vertical) or when some population groups are disadvantaged/discriminated against (horizontal) |
| overlapping characteristics | all inequalities can be intersectional through individuals' overlapping disadvantaged characteristics or situations |
| enabling of opportunity/outcome equality | two philosophies of seeking equality, by either providing a 'level playing field' (opportunity) or ensuring equality in the resulting situations (outcome) |
- "labour income is the main source of income for most households in the world [thus] unequal access to work and working poverty are major drivers of inequalities" [@ILO2021]
- "Income inequality, inequality of employment outcomes more generally and inequality of opportunities are intimately related" [@ILO2022b]
- "To some extent, therefore, income inequality is like a prism, which reveals many other forms of inequality, including those generated in the world of work" [@ILO2021a, 13].
- "Throughout the world, earnings inequality is also determined by a set of other factors, including status in employment (whether a worker is a wage employee or self-employed), sector of activity and occupation, enterprise type, type of contract (for wage earners), and often formality" [@ILO2019].
- while type and extent of inequalities varies by country, "gender inequalities, despite some progress over the past decades, remain persistent and pervasive" [@ILO2021].
- "women everywhere still face high barriers in entering, remaining and progressing in the labour market, while continuing to bear most of the responsibility for unpaid care work" [@ILO2022b].
- "hinders not only access to education, training and lifelong learning, but also access to quality jobs, housing, mobility, land and capital, as well as social protection" [@ILO2021].
- more women, globally, work in underemployment, contribute disproportionally to family work, work shorter hours in employment but have longer working days when including unpaid work, are increasingly employed in services sectors, and still suffer a substantial wage gap [@ILO2016]
- "Domestic work is female-dominated, with women accounting for 76.2 per cent of domestic workers" and domestic work, in turn is overwhelmingly informal employment globally [@ILO2023a, 6].
- "Disparities in the gendered division of unpaid care work and paid work are the result of deeply rooted inequalities based on gender roles, income, age, education and place of residence" [@ILO2019].
- "the incidence of temporary employment is generally higher among youths" [@ILO2019].
- "Women and young people fare significantly worse in labour markets, an indication of the large inequalities within the world of work in many countries." [@ILO2023]
- "In the EU28, some 7% of workers felt they had been discriminated against in the 12 months prior to the survey on grounds of sex, race, religion, age, nationality, disability or sexual orientation" [@ILO2019].
- "between urban, rural and peripheral areas and richer and poorer regions [...] contribute to inequalities in the world of work, as well as to a growing sense of fractured societies" [@ILO2021]
- due to "unequal access to economic and decent work opportunities, to finance, quality public services, quality education and relevant training, essential social services infrastructures and digital infrastructure" [@ILO2021]
These are inequalities that exist *before* the labor market enters the picture for an individual and, while intertwined with socio-demographic inequalities, may be useful to differentiate:
- "some inequalities arise well before individuals enter the world of work and addressing them is key to reducing inequalities in the labour market and beyond" [@ILO2021a]
- "inequality in household incomes [...] reflects many other correlated or underlying forms of inequality [such as] inequality of opportunity, or inequality of access to health services or education, for example." [@ILO2021a, 13]
- "the world of work plays an important role in reducing inequalities, including in terms of intergenerational social mobility" [@ILO2021]
- "they also relate to the characteristics [...] such as the level of education, poverty or productivity and, of course, their underlying factors." [@ILO2021a]
- "underlying factors are numerous and include the lack of formal recognition as an individual (the lack of a birth certificate or identity card), the lack of property rights or of clear ownership of assets, or the lack of access to formal banking, all of which are both a form of inequality and increase other forms of inequality." [@ILO2021a]
- "[Post COVID-19] recovery patterns vary significantly across regions, countries and sectors [and] the impact has been particularly serious for developing nations that experienced higher levels of inequality, more divergent working conditions and weaker social protection systems even before the pandemic." [@ILO2022a]
- "The pandemic is deepening various forms of inequality, from exacerbating gender inequity to widening the digital divide." [@ILO2022a]
- "[inequalities] slow economic growth and poverty reduction, undermine social mobility and increase the risk of social unrest and political instability [as well as] contribute to the intergenerational transmission of poverty and social exclusion" [@ILO2022b]
- "forms of inequality can be also among the root causes of child labour and forced or compulsory labour in all its forms." [@ILO2021]
- "concerns first and foremost those working in the informal economy", who may experience reduced social protection, productivity, job security, wages and earnings [@ILO2021a]
- "many are in forms of work, such as part-time work, fixed-term contracts and working through private employment agencies, that can offer a stepping stone to employment [but] may give rise to decent work deficits when, among other reasons, they are not regulated well" or used to circumvent legal obligations or without adequate labour/social protection [@ILO2021]
- "Job quality features are also positively associated with enterprise performance, productivity and innovation, [...] reducing sickness absence and the loss of productivity due to working while sick. In addition, job quality contributes to developing organisational commitment and motivation among workers, as well as shaping a climate that is supportive of creativity and the development of the workforce" [@ILO2019].
- overall labor force participation: exclusion from labour market or the ability towards full utilization of labour market opportunities [@ILO2021a; @ILO2019]
- ultimately resulting in income inequalities, in turn becoming driver of subsequent inequal outcomes and barriers in the labour market (as well as outside the labour market), reducing inter-generational social mobility [@ILO2021]
- equal pay for work of equal value, wage transparency
- effective/inclusive labour market institutions, e.g. relevant inspectorates
## Transition to the formal economy
- comprehensive, country-tailored, gender-responsive, non-discriminatory strategies tackling drivers of informality
- combination of interventions increasing ability of formal economy to provide decent work opportunities, absorption of current informal workers&economic units
- strengthening ability of people/enterprises to enter formal economy through incentives and elimination of barriers
## Gender equality and non-discrimination, equality for all, diversity and inclusion
- removal of stereotypes, discriminatory laws and practices, including at workplace
- more available data disaggregated by gender,age,disability,race,ethnicity,migrant status to monitor policy impacts
- combined policy responses within/-out labour market against: occupational gender segregation, unequal pay for work of equal value, gender-based violence/harassment, gender unequal division of unpaid care work
## Trade and development for a fair globalization and shared prosperity
- full cooperation with relevant international bodies to avoid severe economic fluctuations, ensure price stability
- promotion of high and steady volume of intl. trade
- promotion/application of fundamental principles and rights at work through trade agreements/in supply chains, alongside responsible business practices
## Universal and adequate social protection
- extension of reach of national social protection systems
- reach those not adequately protected
- ensure access for everyone to comprehensive, adequate, sustainable social protection over life cycle
summary: multi-disciplinary systematic review of association between income, employment, urban poverty. n=243 articles, academic focus on advanced economies; finds significant role of employment in life of urban poor;
findings: most relevant barriers for improving labour market outcomes: lack of access to public transport, geographical segregation, labour informality, inadequate human capital
[@Perez2022] identify a multitude of factors which ultimately affect income, employment and urban poverty.
Among them:
gender inequality, through traditional gender roles and lack of empowerment, a lack of childcare, or inequal domestic work;
low human capital, which can originate through pre-existing inequalities,
spatial inequality, through lack of access to transportation, residential segregation or discrimination, limited access to work,
the inter-generational persistence of poverty as well as the impacts of pre-existing inequalities such as lower human capital or larger household sizes;
and external factors such as extreme weather events or inflation.
Strategies to reduce poverty/unemployment are:
participation in informal sectors or illegal activities,
credit programs,
consumption from informal food sources,
family and institutional support for childcare,
guaranteed minimum income or universal basic income and/or living wage,
income diversification,
commuting subsidies,
housing mobility programs, and
migration.
## Zeinali2021
systematic review of female leadership in health sector (LMICs) using intersectional analysis
main findings: main barriers at intersection of gender and social identity of professional cadre, race/ethnicity, financial status, culture;
main barriers limiting women's access to career development resources: mentorship, sponsorship opportunities, reduce value, recognition, respect at work for women;
channels: increased likelihood for women to take on 'dual burdens' professional work and childcare/domestic work, biased views effectiveness of men/women's leadership styles.
## Pinto2021
systematic review of impact of basic income interventions (n=86; 10 different interventions) on labour market, health, educational, housing and other outcomes
main findings: workforce participation was main dependent variable for studies, evaluation shift over time to include wider array of outcomes reflecting reigning perspective of BI investments possibly lowering health & social care spending; large focus on advanced economies (US)
## Finlay2001
narrative review of connection between women's reproductive health and women's economic activity (and gender equality); looking at (causal) effect of fertility (timing, spacing, number of children) on female labour force participation changes (career advancement, job quality, hours worked); separation between LI,MI,HI countries
main findings:
- low-inc countries women have to adopt individual strategies of balancing child rearing and labour force part. through selection of job type, relying on other household women for childcare, birth spacing due to mostly informal work
- middle-inc countries women have to juggle child rearing, labour force part. with overall income inequality; early childbearing and lone motherhood perpetuate poverty
- high-inc countries, SP policies can assist women in managing childrearing and work balance but underlying issues of gender inequality remain
- all: childbearing interrupts career advancement
## Chaudhuri2021
systematic review on effects of food insecurity (common byproduct of poverty) on health and social outcomes, focusing on women and children
main findings:
- female coping behaviours are non-food (livelihood alterations: outdoor employment, asset base selling, borrowing food/money, purchasing food on credit) or food-based (reducing daily intake sizes/frequency, food rationing; nutritional switch; food sharing);
- (obligatory) outdoor employment mostly as farm labourers, can result in time poverty
- children coping behaviours are begging, stealing, food seeking (with relatives/friends/charitable institutions), dropping out of school
- health outcome includes disrupted socio-cognitive development among children
## Chang2021
systematic qualitative review of effects of return to paid employment and breast-feeding (n=26)
main findings: women experienced physical and emotional difficulties, described gender and employment inequalities in accessing and receiving the support they needed; importance of having workplace legislation in place (and individual motivation) to facilitate breastfeeding during employment; support from employers/colleagues/family members & access to convenient child care helped facilitate breast feeding on return to paid employment
channels:
- gender role expectations viewing women as responsible for domestic work or childcare (especially in LMICs)
- shorter maternity leave times discourage decision towards breast-feeding
## Silvaggi2020
systematic review looking at effect of brain tumors on on work ability of those affected (and BT survivors) (n=7)
main findings: impact of neuropsychological functioning on work productivity, change of employment status for long-term survivors (?most often? job loss), issues related to return to work process
channels: depressive symptoms/cognitive deficits, high short-term mortality, environmental barriers
policy recc: vocational rehabilitation
## dePaz-Banez2020
systematic review of effects of UBI on labour supply (n=38)
main finding: not found any evidence of significant reduction in labour supply, instead labour supply increases globally among adults, men, women, young, old; some insignificant (functional) reductions for: children, elderly, sick, those with disabilities, women with young children to look after, young people who continued studying - do not reduce overall supply since offset by otherwise increased supply
## Lindsay2018a
systematic review of role of gender in employment for disabled young adults (n=48)
main finding:
- majority (21) reported young men with disabilities better employment outcomes than women, fewer (8) showed reverse, minority (5) reported no difference
- men with disabilities often work more hours and have higher wages
- youth with disabilities half as likely to be employed as typically developing peers; starting life with disability often compounds disadvantages
channels:
- social supports
- gender role expectations
- lowered expectations
- overprotection from parents/guardians discouraging independence
## Kumari2018
systematic review looking at relationship of female labour force participation and economic growth, gender disparity in work participation
main findings: U-shaped part. rate; evidence of gender pay disparity across sectors
systematic review of effects of technology adoption on employment (in LMIC/LIC 'less developed countries')
main findings: positive effect more likely when technology adoption favours product innovation not process innovation and when it is is skill based
additional:
- techn. adoption *less* likely to create employment when: related to farm employment not firm/industry employment; related to low-income countries not LMICs; related to data from after 2001 instead of pre-2001
- intl trade, weak forward/backward linkages, weaknesses in governance & labor market institutions can weak job-creating effects of technology adoption
inequality:
- existing income inequalities makes effect of technology adoption on employment creation more ambiguous (potentially widening rift of demand for skilled versus unskilled labour)
- green revolution technologies tend to reduce income/wealth inequality; also negative effect on on-farm employment
## Lettieri2017
meta-review of barriers (and drivers) of inclusion into the labour market for people with disabilities (mental illness)
main findings: employment outcomes seem increased for individuals able to hide their mental illness, practice of concealment of identity
channels:
- prejudices: of missing skills, danger, unpredictability; of hiring as act of charity due to being unproductive; of work stress as contradicting requirements of mental health
- discriminatory hiring practices
- generally low-skilled individuals due to discrimination/cultural/social barriers for training and work inclusion
(narrative?) review of effects of dimensions of female 'empowerment' on health outcomes and development outcomes, such as access to and use of financial services
main findings:
- gender inequalities highly contextual (and intersectional), requires identification of variations at start of interventions where inequalities exist, overlap and work as barriers to its implementation
- strong association with improved outcomes across multiple outcome sectors: control over income/assets/resources, decision-making power, education
- relation with health/family planning outcomes: mobility, personal safety, equitable interpersonal relationships
## Ruhindwa2016
(narrative) review of barriers to workforce inclusion (paid/volunteer work) for people with disabilities; summary of findings
main findings:
- "effective practice takes an inclusive approach and allows clients to take ownership of solutions in relation to addressing the challenges they experience in the employment sector"
policy recc:
- employment support practices
- campaigns to encourage disclosing disability
## Kirsh2016
review of factors influencing LM outcomes of supported employment interventions for people with disabilities
main findings:
- most employment support literature only looks at overall efficacy of interventions, with little prudence for intersectional inequality variations
inequalities:
- men more likely to be employed (argue possibly due to manual labour of many jobs)
- older people less likely to be employed (age+, change-)
- older women more likely to be employed than men
- education very important in employment outcomes
policy recc:
- vocational rehabilitation
## Hastbacka2016
scoping review of linkages between societal participation and people with disabilities for identity of participant, type of participation, type of facilitators and barriers; focus on European countries (n=32, between 2012-2013)
main findings: strongest focus on labour market participation; social participation viewed through lens of disabled people as one group instead of intersectional
main barriers: financial factors, attitudes, health issues, unemployment
main facilitators: legislation and disability policies; support from people in close contact with disabled people, attitudes in society and employment opportunities for people with disabilities
## Nevala2015
systematic review looking at effectiveness of workplace accommodation (vocational counselling/guidance, education/self-advocacy, help of others, changes in work schedules, work organization, special transportation) on employment, work ability, cost-benefit, rtw (n=11)
main findings:
- moderate evidence that employment among physically disabled persons promoted by: vocational counselling/guidance, education/self-advocacy, help of others, changes in work schedules, work organisation, special transportation
- low evidence that rtw increased for physical/cognitive disabilities by: liaison (btw employer and other professionals), education, work aids, work techniques
barrier/facilitators: self-advocacy, support of employer and community, amount of training/counselling, flexibility of work schedules/organisation
