afd-development-contexts/notes/vietnam/2208151145_literature-climate.md

[ ] Mottet2009

• looks at strengths/weaknesses of flood risk management in Ninh Binh province (2002-2005), especially urban Ninh Binh (capital):
  • flood risks constant challenge to area (for centuries)
  • affects most areas within the region
• strengths of current management lie in prevention with dykes designed to channel high waters
  • additional measures, consolidation and elevation of houses, further strengthens prevention
  • effective monitoring of weather conditions (rainfall/typhoon) that may trigger floods
• weaknesses
  • continued construction in flood-endangered zones (little urban policy)
  • information given to inhabitants over flood risks often insufficient
  • few compensation systems for flood victims

[ ] Kozel2014

• overview of poverty in Vietnam and how it plays into inequality
• generally, poverty decreased (dramatically) in Vietnam (90s-2010)
  • but factors still relatively similar:
    • low education and skills,
    • dependency on subsistence agriculture,
    • physical and social isolation
    • specific disadvantages linked to ethnic identity
    • exposure to natural disasters and risks
• "future growth in agricultural livelihoods is also threatened by risks and vulnerabilities such as [...] natural disasters, climate change, and environmental degradation" [180]
  • poor households remain in precarious situation to economy-wide shocks (e.g. effects of climate change on rainfall and temperatures)
  • but also many households remain vulnerable to falling into poverty through these exogenous shock events
  • (reactionary) mitigation efforts towards these shocks: reduced healthcare spending, selling of land/livestock assets, taking children out of school often in turn lead to longer term adverse consequences

[ ] Ylipaa2019

results:

• Vietnam extremely susceptible to climate change impacts, esp extreme weather events (storms, floods)
• looking at adaptation through gendered dimensions
  • differentiated rights/responsibilities male/female leading to unequal opportunities
  • females increased immobility, thus increased vulnerability to climate impacts and reduced capacity to adapt
• at same time, farming livelihoods become increasingly feminized (due to urbanization and devaluation of farming)
  • the gender dimension is harder to counteract through usual technical solutions, may lead to exacerbation of both within-group/between-group inequalities

[ ] Karpouzoglou2019

results:

• historically, tying flood resilience of river deltas to institutional/infrastructural interventions, runs danger of unforeseen consequences ('ripple effects'):
  • biodiversity and accelerated land subsidence [collapse]
    • endangering fertile characteristics that made them interesting locations in the first place
• resilience measures thus at risk of amploifying unequal power relations
  • potentially have differential effects on people's mobility under flood conditions
  • some groups better protected than others (water accumulation in specific areas)
• driven by existing power structures, thus necessary to as if they exacerbate existing power inequalities

[ ] Son2020

results:

• analyze adaptation by ethnic minorities (Tay, Dao, Hmong) in Northern Mountainous Region (NMR):
  • poorest area of Vietnam
  • gender, age, ethnicity, poverty, location often provided considerable barriers to adaptation
  • locally-employed coping strategies conditional on strength and foresight of institutions and policies on loca, regional, central levels (i.e. especially preventative measures)
  • local knowledge and social capital can ease pressures but policy failures more typically led to mal-adaptation and welfare dependence
  • necessary to increase quality, focus of and access to government resources to enhance community adaptation possibilities
• risks:
  • drought - (rice) yield losses between 50% and 100% depending on proximity of fields to water sources
    • impact also depends on access to non-farm incomes sources
    • effects poverty and hunger/malnutrition (especially among children)
    • taking children out of school to help family survival (financial & food)
  • flood
    • directly/indirectly (land slides) damage to residential structures
    • even more important than property damage was livelihood disruption
    • crop destruction, landslide cause, rice field inundation, overflowing fish ponds
    • additionally social problems like health risks through water contamination and malnutrition (crop failure)
  • cold snaps
    • loss of livestock
    • impact depending on biophysical location (higher altitudes hit more intensely)
    • ethnicity and farming practices (free-range grazing hit more heavily)
• government should shift from crisis management to risk management, focus on building more adaptive capacity

[ ] Jafino2021

• equity considerations increase in climate adaptation planning
  • but considerations often adopt aggregated perspective
  • only through closer disaggregation can be seen who benefits (when and where)
• examples in Vietnam Mekong Delta of flood protection efforts mainly benefitting large-scale farming while small-scale farmers were in fact harmed
  • measured through aggregate total output and equity indicators and disaggregated district-level farming profitability indicators
  • analyzes: inundation, sedimentation, soil fertility, nutrient dynamics, behavioral land-use, farming profitability in coupled assessment model
• adequate planning to anticipate equity consequences may require accounting for multisectoral dynamics
  • inter-district inequality responds non-linearly to climatic/socio-economic changes and choices of adaptation policies

-> within-sector policy responses to climate change may have between-sector impacts

[ ] Hudson2021

• social inequalities lead to flood resilience inequalities across social groups
• analyzes self-stated flood recovery responses in Central Vietnam (Thua Thien-Hue province), mainly in gender dimension:
  • set of relevant variables similar across genders: age, social capital, internal and external support after flood, perceived severity of previous flood impacts, perception of stress-resilience
  • women generally more heavily affected by flooding with longer recovery times
  • psychological variables can influence recovery rates more than adverse flood impacts (thus should be considered in post-flood support programs)