afd-development-contexts/notes/benin/2208181310_literature-electricity.md

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### [x] VanDePoel2009 - HH characteristics determining rural infant death
* looks at determinants of infant deaths in rural regions at HH and community level
* at multiple countries (6?) throughout SSA (including Benin)
* results:
* mainly derived from rural disadvantage in HH characteristics (2/3rds of gap)
* environmental factors (safe water source, electricity, quality of housing materials) biggest contributors
* community characteristics less than 1/3rd:
* 2/3rds of this from unobserved heterogeneity
* 1/3rd of existence of health facility in community
* lack of environmental factors can derive both from lack of community-level infrastructure and inability of some HHs to exploit it when available
* effective policy thus needs to operate at both levels to improve it
### [ ] Golumbeanu2013 - electricity access and high connection charges
* looks at reasons for poor access to electricity for poor rural (and urban) HHs
* results:
* major obstacle is high charge for customer to connect to electricity grid (some of highest connection charges in world)
* solution requires concurrent political commitment toward identifying, examining, implementing low-cost electrification processes and financing solutions
* low-cost technologies need to be put in center of attention
* determinants:
* lack of incentives to increase affordability
* weak utilities commitment to provide broad electricity access,
focused more on high-consumption urban markets
* overrated technical specifications for low loads
* greater distances between HH and distribution pole in rural areas
* lack of affordable financing options
### [x] Djossou2017 - growth is pro-poor in Benin
* looks at relation between economic growth and poverty
* data from 2006, 2011 Benin Demographic and Health Surveys
* results:
* growth generally pro-poor in Benin
* disparities between rural/urban; women and elderly:
* women, elderly general livelihood improvement but generally favored non-poor relative to poor
* urban poor HHs benefited less than rural from growth
* potentially due to numerous efforts to open up rural communities to harness benefits of growth
* **rural households access to electricity 17.64% (2006) 25.03% (2011)**
* possession of durable goods (fridges, mobile phone, internet, ..) significantly improved in rural households
* emphasizes need of infrastructure expansion to HHs (to rural communities)
### [x] Jaglin2019 - electricity autonomy in Africa
* looks at ways of electrification and different approaches
* results for rural areas:
* individual offerings of solar panels/generators or smaller electric appliances (LED dry cell powered torches)
* often offering collective solutions (kiosks, autonomous mini-grids)
* half-way between individual and grid connection: mini-grid construction for more densely populated rural area, often requiring some sort of permit or license
### [x] Barry2020 - pay-as-you-go system does not bridge last mile problem
* looks at extension and preferred customers for PAYG contracts
* PAYG: flexible loans allowing fees payment through mobile banking, to purchase solar kits or panels for lighting and charging services
* 'last mile' problem: addressing an area neglected within the field of energy access (scaling challenge)
* results:
* most of PAYG customers live in well electrified areas
* esp Cotonou, Porto Novo, Abomey Calavi, coastal zone
* most customers in urban/peri-urban areas
* PAYG used to substitute unreliable grid electricity services
* consumers in periferic/less electrified areas (Savalou) have low probability to default on credit
* thus PAYG primarily targets credit-worthy customers
### [x] WorldBank2021 - electrification levels
* electrification level:
* 2000: 22%
* 2005: 26%
* 2010: 34%
* 2015: 30%
* 2019: 40%
* location:
* urban: 65% (2019)
* rural: 17% (2019)
* electricity growth outpaced population growth (2017-2019)
### [x] Rateau2022 - Electrifying urban Africa
* data from 2017-2018 for Cotonou (urban economic capital Benin)
* Benin depends on Nigeria for power supply
* difficult to connect grid due to connection costs and long distances
* solar energy in Cotonou is used as alternative power source not complementary, until they can connect to main grid
* diffusion of solar/generators not systematic or the same
* to be connected to conventional grid requires location close to it, while it covers only planned urban areas
* thus 2 main obstacles of rural and urban unplanned areas:
* either electricity physically not available in local area
* or high initial costs consumer pays for connection unaffordable
* generators and solar panels have become material markers of inequalities in access to electricity
* grid strengthening efforts also make Benin more independent from Nigeria as main supplier (with outages in Nigeria otherwise strongly felt in Benin)