* looks at effects of major policy shift from supply-driven to demand-driven approach in rural water provision (in 1990)
* results:
* rural safe water coverage improved slightly
* operation and maintenance of water sources pose great challenge, impeding long-term access to safe water
* abrupt and top-down imposed policy created competing signals from old and new policies
* lead to uncertainty and ambiguity about responsibilities, rules, incentives
* challenge is not only water provision approach but provision of consistent multi-actor and -level governance structure tying to past institutions and providing long-term motivation for local water users to contribute to water provision
* Isingiro results:
* Uganda: access to improved water source 44% (1990), 60% (2004), 66% (2010)
* Uganda: urban household travels 0.2km, rural 0.8km to source (avg waiting time half an hour)
* Isingiro: average distance to source 1.5km
* Isingiro: only 53% of water sources surveyed were functional
* 24% partly functional (low/intermittent yield)
* 18% non-functional
* blocked drainage channels for some of them leading to possible contamination
* qualitative:
* water generally responsibility of women
* cost of user fees prohibite for some to participate
* technology and ability to repair were expensive and usually far away (spare parts, resulted in delayed repairs)
### [ ] Cooper2016
* looks at vulnerability of rural farmers to climate events
* results:
* wealthier farmers perceive drought as highest risk, poorer farmers extreme heavy rainfall
* generally implemented many anticipatory and livelihood coping responses (54.7%), like food storage, livestock maintenance, planting drought-resistant varieties
* some responses (45.4%) specific to individual climatic events
* had no response to cope with rainfall variability
* farmers with more land, education, access to gov extension, non-farm livelihood, larger households, older age more capacity to buffer shock (through increased assets and entitlements)
* inequality arises due to different abilities to be resilient toward climatic shock events
### [x] Mulogo2018
* looks at access to water, sanitation, hygiene at health care facilities
* 2010, Isingiro had 28% access to safe water
* main supply technologies are public stand posts, protected spring technology, deep boreholes
* rain harvesting tanks, gravity flow schemes, in some cases groundwater-based pubped piped water supply system present
* results:
* of 282 health care facilities, 94% had improved sources (but some no improved source, some no source on the premises)
### [ ] Naiga2018 - community-based water management
* looks at relevant design principles in creating successful collective self-managed water management institutions, at Isingiro vs Sheema district
* results:
* difference in water infrastructure management effectiveness primarily down to existence/absence of organizational characteristics prescribed in design principles
* Isingiro: absence of conditions prescribed by design principles due confronted with lack of sufficient self-governance arrangements:
* unclear social boundaries
* missing collective-choice arrangements
* lack of sanctions or conflict resolution mechanisms
* Isingiro: should be regarded as 'vicious circle of institutional failures'
* looks at perception of drought and food insecurity in Isingiro district
* questionnaire for farmers in Isingiro district whose livelihood is predominantly dependent on crop production
* results:
* 68.6% of HHs perceive food insecurity as problem
* those not seeing it as problem had higher off-farm incomes and larger farm sizes
* 'implies productive assets (e.g. land) can be easily translated into productive activies for higher income [...] while off-farm income could provide more choices in terms of food access' [9]
* access to credit for crops *increased* food security status awareness
* more likely to use credit as buffer against food insecurity
* drought widely perceived as problem contributing to food insecurity (95.6%)
* HHs believe most at-risk of drought-induced food insecurity
* 13% reported to be 'doing nothing' to respond to drought effects
### [ ] Nagasha2019 - effect of droughts on gender roles
* looks at effect of climate change (more sever droughts) on gender roles around Lake Mburo National Park (Isingiro, Kiruhura districts)
* results:
* men and women's gender roles altered during extreme dryness
* men played roles sequentially focusing on one single reproductive role
* women played roles simultaneously
* often forced to engage children in work activities to balance own workload
* Isingiro: female children more engaged with chores than male children
* in Kiruhura district migration in search of water & pasture livestick, further distorting roles
* Isingiro: men became more actively engaged in firewood collection (62.8%) and fetching water (45.9%)
* women's exclusion from land ownership brings them further in state of dependence, thus more vulnerable to climate change effects
