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citation: Adam2018
author: Adam, C., Bevan, D., & Gollin, D.
year: 2018
title: "Rural-urban linkages, public investment and transport costs: The case of tanzania"
publisher: World Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.08.013
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Tanzania
period: 2001
maxlength:
targeting: explicit
group: rural workers
data: national Tanzania Social Accounting Matrix (SAM, 2001); national administrative survey Integrated Labor Force Survey (2001), Tanzania Agricultural Sample Census (2003)
design: simulation
method: general equilibrium model
sample: 7
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, rural
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: transport cost burden approach
limitations: can not account for population change (e.g. pop growth); causality based on model only
observation:
- intervention: infrastructure
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: spatial; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: real consumption wage differences
findings: results depend on financing scheme, each financing scheme entails some households being worse off; rural households worse off when infrastructure is deficit-financed or paid through tariff revenue; rural households benefit most when financed through consumption taxes or by external aid
channels: movement of rural workers out of quasi-subsistence agriculture to other locations and sectors
direction: -1
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: there can be spatial differences to how connected regions within a country are to markets purely due to transport costs
annotation: |
A study modeling the effects of transport infrastructure investments in Tanzania on rural income inequalities and household welfare inequalities, modeled through consumption indicators.
Generally it finds that the results of public investment measures into transport infrastructure largely depend on the financing scheme used.
Comparing four financing schemes when looking at the effects on rural households, it finds that they are generally worse off when the development is deficit-financed or paid through tariff revenues.
On the other hand, rural households benefit through increased income from measures financed through consumption taxes, or by external aid.
The general finding is that there is no pareto optimum for any of the investment measures for all locations,
and that much of the increases in welfare are based on movement of rural workers out of quasi-subsistence agriculture to other locations and other sectors.
The study creates causal inferences but is limited in its modeling approach representing a limited subset of empirical possibility spaces,
as well as having to make the assumption of no population growth for measures to hold.

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cite: Adams2015
author: Adams, S., & Atsu, F.
year: 2015
title: "Assessing the distributional effects of regulation in developing countries"
publisher: Journal of Policy Modeling
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2015.08.003
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: global
period: 1970-2012
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: developing countries
data: panel data
design: quasi-experimental
method: system general method of moments, fixed effects, OLS; using Gini coefficient
sample: 72
unit: country
representativeness: regional
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: macro-level observations subsumed under region-level scale only
observation:
- intervention: trade liberalization (FDI)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related
channels: wrong targeting incentive structure for FDI
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: regulation (labour)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: labour regulations and business regulations negatively related to equitable income distribution while credit market regulation has no effect in income distribution; FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related
channels: regulatory policies often lack institutional capability to optimize for benefits; policies require specific targeting of inequality reduction
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: education (school enrolment)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: school enrolment positively related to equitable income distribution
channels: capacity-building for public administration practitioners; more context-adapted policies generated
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: LM regulations defined as hiring/firing, minimum wage, severance pay; business reg. bureaucracy costs, business starting costs, licensing and compliance costs; credit market oversight of banks, private sector credit, interest rate controls
annotation: |
A study on the effects of labour, business and credit regulations, FDI and school enrolment on the income inequality in developing countries from 1970 to 2012.
It finds that in MENA, SSA, LAC and to some extend AP increased labour and business regulations are actually negatively related to equitable income distribution, with market regulation not having significant effects.
Similarly, FDI is negatively related and the authors suggest it is unlikely to generate general welfare effects in developing countries as it often has the wrong targeting incentive structure.
The authors identify developing countries lacking in institutional capability to accomplish regulatory policies optimized for benefits and see the need for policies requiring more specific targeting of inequality reduction as their agenda.
On the other, they find school enrolment and thus education-oriented policies to be positively related with an equitable income distribution,
suggesting it increases the capacity of public administration practitioners and in turn lead to more adapted policies specific to developing countries' institutional contexts.
Overall, the authors suggest that regulatory policy in developing countries needs to be built for their specific contexts and not exported from developed countries due to their different institutional capabilities and structural makeup.
The study is limited in its design focus that lying purely on the macro-level regional analyses and can thus, when finding correlations towards income inequality, also only identify far-reaching structural and institutional possible root causes.

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cite: Ahumada2023
author: Ahumada, P. P.
year: 2023
title: "Trade union strength, business power, and labor policy reform: The cases of Argentina and Chile in comparative perspective"
publisher: International Journal of Comparative Sociology
uri: https://doi.org/10.1177/00207152231163846
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: global
period: 2009-2017
maxlength:
targeting:
group:
data: time-series cross-sectional database for collective labour rights and class power disparity
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS; Arellano estimator
sample: 78
unit: country
representativeness: regional
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: power resource theory
limitations: limited 2-observation dataset per country; potential remaining measurement bias due to concurrent shocks
observation:
- intervention: collective action (unionization)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining (FACB) and violation index coding
findings: more unequal political power distribution hinders processes of collective organisation
channels:
direction: # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of unequal distributions of political power on the extent and provision of collective labour rights.
It is a combination of quantitative global comparison with qualitative case studies for Argentina and Chile.
It finds that, for societies in which power is more unequally distributed, collective bargaining possibilities are more limited and weaker.
It suggests that, aside from a less entrenched trade unionization in the country, the primary channel for the its weakening are that existing collective labour rights are often either restricted or disregarded outright.
Employers were restricted in their ability to effectively conduct lobbying, and made more vulnerable to what the authors suggest are 'divide-and-conquer' strategies by government with a strongly entrenched trade unionization, due to being more separate and uncoordinated.
A limit is the strong institutional context of the two countries which makes generalizable application of its underlying channels more difficult to the overarching quantitative analysis of inequality outcomes,
which retains a potential for measurement bias due to country-level concurrent shocks.

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cite: Al-Mamun2014
author: Al-Mamun, A., Wahab, S. A., Mazumder, M. N. H., & Su, Z.
year: 2014
title: Empirical Investigation on the Impact of Microcredit on Women Empowerment in Urban Peninsular Malaysia
publisher: Journal of Developing Areas
uri: https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2014.0030
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Malaysia
period: 2011
maxlength: 2
targeting: implicit
group: women
data: structured face-to-face interviews
design: quasi-experimental
method: cross-sectional stratified random sampling; OLS, multiple regression analysis
sample: 242
unit: individual
representativeness: subnational, urban
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: household economic portfolio model (Chen & Dunn, 1996)
limitations: can not establish full experimental design
observation:
- intervention: microcredit; training
institutional: 0
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: gender; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: empowerment index (personal savings; personal income; asset ownership)
findings: increase in household decision-making for women; increase in economic security for women; constrained by inability for individuals to obtain loans
channels: individual access to finance; collective agency increase through meetings and training
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the impacts of an urban micro-finance programme in Malaysia on the economic empowerment of women.
The programme introduced the ability for low-income urban individuals to receive collateral-free credit.
The study finds that the programme, though not specifically aimed at women, indeed increased women's economic empowerment with an increase in household decision-making, as well as increased personal economic security.
Primarily this is due to the increased access to finance, though it also functions thorugh an increase of collective agency established for the women in organised meetings and trainings.
It also finds, however, that the empowerment outcomes are constrained by the inability for individuals to obtain loans, with the programme only disbursing group loans which are harder to achieve through obstacles to collective organisation by different racial and socio-demographic backgrounds in each dwelling.
The study is somewhat limited in its explanatory power since even through its random sampling design it can not establish control for all factors required in experimental design.

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cite: Alexiou2023
author: Alexiou, C., & Trachanas, E.
year: 2023
title: "The impact of trade unions and government party orientation on income inequality: Evidence from 17 OECD economies"
publisher: Journal of Economic Studies
uri: https://doi.org/10.1108/JES-12-2021-0612
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Australia; Austria; Belgium; Canada; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Italy; Japan; Netherlands; New Zealand; Norway; Spain; Sweden; United Kingdom; United States
period: 2000-2016
maxlength:
targeting:
group:
data: Standardized World Income Inequality Database (SWIID) OECD panel data
design: quasi-experimental
method: panel fixed effects approach, Driscoll and Kraay non-parametric covariance matrix estimator
sample: 18
unit: country
representativeness: regional
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: power resources theory
limitations: can not account for individual drivers such as collective bargaining, arbitration, etc
observation:
- intervention: collective action (trade unionization)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; gender
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff (equivalized household disposable income, market income, manufacturing pay)
findings: unionization strongly related with decreasing income inequality; right-wing institutional contexts related with increased income inequality
channels: redistribution of political power under unions; weak unionization increases post-redistribution inequality
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of both political orientation of governments' parties and a country's trade unionization on its income inequality.
It finds that, generally, strong unionization is strongly related to decreasing income inequality, most likely through a redistribution of political power through collective mobilization in national contexts of stronger unions.
It also suggests that in contexts of weaker unionization, post-redistribution income inequality is higher, thus also fostering unequal redistributive policies.
Lastly, it finds positive relations between right-wing orientation of a country's government and its income inequality, with more mixed results for centrist governments pointing to potential fragmentations in their redistributive policy approaches.
The study is mostly limited in not being able to account for individual drivers (or barriers) and can thus not disaggregate for the effects for example arbitration or collective bargaining.

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cite: Alinaghi2020
author: Alinaghi, N., Creedy, J., & Gemmell, N.
year: 2020
title: "The redistributive effects of a minimum wage increase in New Zealand: A microsimulation analysis"
publisher: Australian Economic Review
uri: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8462.12381
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: New Zealand
period: 2012-2013
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group:
data: New Zealand Household Economic Survey (HES)
design: simulation
method: microsimulation model; uses Atkinson index
sample: 3500
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: large sample weights may bias specific groups, e.g. sole parents
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Atkinson index
findings: small impact on inequality of income signals bad programme targeting; significant reduction in poverty measures for sole parents already in employment only, but insignificant for sole parents overall
channels: many low-wage earners are secondary earners in higher income households; low-wage households often have no wage earners at all
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study using a microsimulation to estimate the effects of a minimum wage increase in New Zealand on overall income inequality and further disaggregations along gender and poverty lines.
It finds limited redistributional effects for the policy, with negligible impact on overall income inequality and the possibility of actually increasing inequalities among lower percentile income households.
Additionally, while it finds a significant reduction in some poverty measures for sole parents that are in employment, when looking at sole parents overall the effects become insignificant again.
The authors suggest this points to bad programme targeting, which at best has negligible positive impact on income equality and at worst worsens income inequality in lower income households, due to may low-wage earners being the secondary earners of higher-income households but low-wage households often having no wage earners at all.
A pertinent limitation of the study includes its large sample weights possibly biasing the impacts on specific groups such as sole parents and thus being careful not to overestimate their significance.

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cite: Bailey2012
author: Bailey, M. J., Hershbein, B., & Miller, A. R.
year: 2012
title: The Opt-In Revolution? Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages
publisher: "Economic journal: applied economics"
uri: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.225
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: United States
period: 1968-1989
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: young women
data: longitudinal administrative National Longitudinal Survey of Young Women (NLS-YW)
design: quasi-experimental
method: linear regression models; OLS; Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition with recentered influence function (RIF) procedure
sample: 5159
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: dataset does not capture access to contraception beyond age 20 and social multiplier effects (e.g. changed hiring/promotion patterns)
observation:
- intervention: technological change (contraception)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: hourly wage distribution (gendered)
findings: early legal access to contraceptives ('the pill') influenced decrease in gender gap by 10% in 1980s, 30% in 1990s; estimates 1/3rd of total female wage gains induced by access 1980s-1990s
channels: increased labor market experience (due to not exiting early); greater educational attainment, occupational upgrading; spurred personal investment in human capital and careers
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of the introduction of legal access to contraceptive measures for women in the United States, measuring the impacts on closing the gender gap through the gendered hourly working wage distribution.
The study finds that of the closing gender pay gap from 1980 to 2000, legal access to 'the pill' as contraceptive from an early age contributed by nearly percent in the 1980s and over 30 percent in the 1990s.
Thus, overall the authors estimate that nearly one third of total female wage gains during this time were attributable to legal access to contraception.
The primary channels identified are greater educational attainment, occupational upgrading, and increased labour market experience made possible due to no early exit.
The authors also argue that the pill spurred individual agency to invest in personal human capital and career.
However, there are some limitations to the findings: The dataset cannot capture specific access to contraception beyond age 20, which makes the window of analysis more restricted and especially focused on the segment of women under 21.
Additionally, the study can not control for social multiplier effects such as employers reacting with changed hiring or promotion patterns or expectations about marriage and childbearing, as well as the overall coinciding paradigmatic change in norms and ideas about women's work and end of the national baby boom.

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cite: Bartha2020
author: Bartha, A., & Zentai, V.
year: 2020
title: "Long-term care and gender equality: Fuzzy-set ideal types of care regimes in europe"
publisher: Social inclusion (vol. 8, issue 4, pp. 92–102)
uri: https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v8i4.2956
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: global
period: 2016-2019
maxlength: 1
targeting: implicit
group: women
data: European Commission; Eurofound; Mutual Information System on Social Protection; European Institute for Gender Equality
design: observational
method: fuzzy-set ideal type ranking
sample: 28
unit: country
representativeness: regional
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: familialization in LTC
limitations: scarce comparable data; ideal-types follow prior assumptions potentially restricting view
observation:
- intervention: social security (pensions, care facilities); regulation (LTC-reforms, fiscal policies)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; age
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: full-time equivalent employment rate gap between men and women
findings: few countries fit an ideal-type household of male bread-winner (traditional), unsupported/supported double-earner; supported double-earner type mostly prevalent in Western Europe/Scandinavian countries, Southern/Eastern Europe predominantly unsupported double-earner; women will take on more unpaid care work in that model
channels: in-home care facilitated by rising migrant cash-for-care work sectors may increase FLFP
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: relying on migrant work is often poorly regulated, low paid and in turn may have negative consequences on gender equality in migrant communities/home countries
annotation: |
An observational study on the effects of the policy trajectories of European countries concerning long-term care work, with a special focus on the impacts on gender equality.
The trajectories for the study are mostly described through measures of social protection and social security such as pensions or the provision of residential or at-home care facilities, regulation and fiscal policies.
Regarding the effects on the labour market it uses the full-time equivalent employment rate gap between men and women.
It finds that few countries in Europe fit one of the ideal-type household their ranking predicted, between male bread-winner, unsupported double-earner and supported double-earner households.
Only half of the countries clearly fall into one of the three ideal-types and no countries fall into the category of male bread-winner.
While supported double-earner type is mostly prevalent in Western Europe and the Scandinavian countries, Southern and Eastern Europe are predominantly shaped by the unsupoorted double-earner type.
Generally, more women will take on more unpaid care work in this model especially, though the prevalence exists in all models, which also explains the employment rate gap not decreasing significantly.
Where it decreases, the 'familialization' of care work is often undergoing a process of being taken on as cash-for-care work by migrants in a rising work sector in the former countries, which in turn may slightly increase the overall female labour force participation.
However, relying on this type of work may not be sustainable or provide decent work, as it often remains poorly regulated and low paid, and may in turn have negative consequences on gender inequality in migrant communities or home countries.
Some limitations of the study include its scarce underlying data for comparable care work and care migration data, as well as the weak categorization possibilities perhaps obscuring incongruent patterns of policy effects.

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cite: Blumenberg2014
author: Blumenberg, E., & Pierce, G.
year: 2014
title: A Driving Factor in Mobility? Transportation’s Role in Connecting Subsidized Housing and Employment Outcomes in the Moving to Opportunity (MTO) Program
publisher: Journal of the American Planning Association
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2014.935267
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: United States
period: 1994-2001
maxlength: 84
targeting: implicit
group: poor women
data: baseline and follow-up survey;
design: experimental
method: RCT; multinomial regression model
sample: 3199
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, metropolitan
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: low levels of explanatory power for individual model outcomes, esp for disadvantaged population groups; possible endogeneity bias through unobserved factors (e.g. human capital); binary distinction automobile access, not graduated
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (housing mobility)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: spatial; gender; ethnicity
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment rate
findings: no relationship between subsidy and employment outcomes; increased employment probability for people living in high transit areas, but no increased job gain for moving to high transit area itself
channels: high transit area employment paradox may be due to inherent difficulty of connecting household to opportunity in dispersed labor market just via access to transit
direction: 0 # 0 = no relationship no direction
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: infrastructure (transport)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: spatial; gender; ethnicity
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment rate
findings: increased employment probability for car ownership
channels: better transport mobility to access wider job opportunity network
direction: 1 # 0 = no relationship no direction
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: 98% of sample is female
annotation: |
A study looking at the effects of a housing mobility intervention in the United States on employment for disadvantaged households,
and comparing its impacts to the ownership of a car for the same sample.
It follows the 'Moving to Opportunity' programme which provided vouchers to randomized households for movement to a geographically unrestricted area or to specifically to a low-poverty area (treatment group),
some of which are in areas with well-connected public transport opportunities.
The sample for the study is made up predominantly of women (98%).
No relationship between programme participation and increased employment probability could be established.
However, a positive relationship exists between owning an automobile and improved employment outcomes for low-income households,
as well as including those households that are located in 'transit-rich' areas.
Access to better transit itself is related to employment probability but not gains in employment -
the authors suggest this reflects individuals' strategic relocation to use public transit for their job.
However, moving to a better transit area itself does not increase employment probability,
perhaps pointing to a certain threshold required in transit extensiveness before it facilitates employment.
Ultimately, the findings suggest the need to further individual acess to automobiles in disadvantaged households or for extensive transit network upgrade which have to cross an efficiency threshold.
Some limitations of the study are its models low explanatory power for individual outcomes, more so among disadvantaged population groups,
as well as some remaining possibility of endogeneity bias through unobserved factors such as individual motivation or ability.

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cite: Broadway2020
author: Broadway, B., Kalb, G., McVicar, D., & Martin, B.
year: 2020
title: The Impact of Paid Parental Leave on Labor Supply and Employment Outcomes in Australia
publisher: Feminist Economics
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1718175
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Australia
period: 2009-2012
maxlength: 14
targeting: explicit
group: working mothers
data: national administrative surveys Baseline Mothers Survey (BaMS), Family and Work Cohort Study (FaWCS)
design: quasi-experimental
method: propensity score matching
sample: 5000
unit: individuals
representativeness: national, census
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: can not account for child-care costs; can not fully exclude selection bias into motherhood; potential (down-ward) bias through pre-birth labor supply effects/financial crisis
observation:
- intervention: paid leave (childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (rtw)
findings: short-term (<6months) decrease of rtw; long-term (>6-9months) significant positive impact on returning to work in same job under same conditions; greatest response from disadvantaged mothers
channels: supplants previous employer-funded leave which often did not exist for disadvantaged mothers; reduction in opportunity cost of delaying rtw
direction: 1 # 0 neg / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: child-care costs may have additional dampening effect on rtw
annotation: |
A study on the introduction of univeral paid maternal leave in Australia, looking at its impacts on mothers returning to work and the conditions they return under.
It finds that, while there is a short-term decrease of mothers returning to work since they make use of the introduced leave period, over the long-term (after six to nine months) there is a significant positive impact on return-to-work.
Furthermore, there is a positive impact on returning to work in the same job and under the same conditions,
the effects of which are stronger for more disadvantaged mothers (measured through income, education and access to employer-funded leave).
This suggests that the intervention reduced the opportunity costs for delaying the return to work, and especially for those women that did not have employer-funded leave options, directly benefiting more disadvantaged mothers.
Some potential biases of the study are its inability to account for child-care costs, as well as not being able to fully exclude selection bias into motherhood.
There also remains the potential of results being biased through pre-birth labor supply effects or the results of the financial crisis, which may create a down-ward bias for either the short- or long-term effects.

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cite: Cardinaleschi2019
author: Cardinaleschi, S., De Santis, S., & Schenkel, M.
year: 2019
title: "Effects of decentralised bargaining on gender inequality: Italy"
publisher: Panoeconomicus
uri: https://doi.org/10.2298/PAN1903325C
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Italy
period: 2014
maxlength:
targeting:
group:
data: Linked Employer Employees Data from Structure of Earnings Survey
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS; Oaxaca-Blinder & Juhn-Murphy-Pierce decompositions
sample:
unit: firm
representativeness: national; census
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: gender endowment discrimination; glass ceiling wage-setting institutions
limitations: Only a short-term decomposition of mostly cross-sectional dataset
observation:
- intervention: collective action (collective bargaining)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: income shares
findings: collective negotiation practices address gender gap marginally significantly; need to be supplemented by policies considering human-capital aspects
channels: occupational segregation into feminized industries
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the wage gap in the Italian labour market, looking especially at the effects of collective negotiation practices.
It finds that the Italian labour market's wage gap exists primarily due to occupational segregation between the genders, with women often working in more 'feminized' industries, and not due to educational lag by women in Italy.
It also finds that collective negotiation practices targeting especially managerial representation and wages do address the gender pay gap, but only marginally significantly.
The primary channel for only marginal significance stems from internal heterogeneity in that only the median part of wage distributions is significantly affected by the measures.
Instead, the authors recommend a stronger mix of policy approaches, also considering the human-capital aspects with for example active labour-market policies targeting it.
A limitation of the study is the short-term explanatory power of its underlying dataset consisting of a cross-sectional decomposition.

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cite: Carstens2018
author: Carstens, C., & Massatti, R.
year: 2018
title: Predictors of labor force status in a random sample of consumers with serious mental illness
publisher: Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research
uri: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11414-018-9597-8
pubtype: article
discipline: health services
country: United States
period: 2014-2015
maxlength: 1
targeting: explicit
group: mentally ill
data: survey data
design: observational
method: multinomial logistic regression model
sample: 917
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: human capital theory; strength-based therapy
limitations: small sample due to low response rate; over-representation of women, older persons, racial minorities
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (health care)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: disability
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment probability
findings: LFP significantly increased for employment incentives; significantly reduced for employment barriers and Medicaid ABD programme participation; marginally reduced for
channels: Medicaid ABD generates benefits trap of disability determination
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: employment motivators captured as increased responsibility and problem-solving, stress management, reduced depression and anxiety; employment barriers
annotation: |
An analysis of the potential factors influencing mentally ill individuals in the United States to participate in the labour force, using correlation between different programmes of Medicaid and labour force status.
In trying to find labour force participation predictors it finds employment motivating factors in reduced depression and anxiety, increased responsibility and problem-solving and stress management being positive predictors.
In turn barriers of increased stress, discrimination based on their mental, loss of free time, loss of government benefits and tests for illegal drugs were listed as barriers negatively associated with labour force participation.
For the government benefits, it finds significant variations for the different varieties of Medicaid programmes, with the strongest netagive labour force participation correlated to Medicaid ABD, a programme for which it has to be demonstrated that an individual cannot work due to their disability.
The authors suggest this shows the primary channel of the programme becoming a benefit trap, with disability being determined by not working and benefits disappearing when participants enter the labour force, creating dependency to the programme as a primary barrier.
Two limitations of the study are its small sample size due to a low response rate, and an over-representation of racial minorities, women and older persons in the sample mentioned as introducing possible downward bias for measured labour force participation rates.

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cite: Chao2022
author: Chao, C.-C., Ee, M. S., Nguyen, X., & Yu, E. S. H.
year: 2022
title: "Minimum wage, firm dynamics, and wage inequality: Theory and evidence"
publisher: International Journal Of Economic Theory
uri: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijet.12307
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: global
period: 2005-2015
maxlength:
targeting:
group: formal workers
data: WB Doing Business Survey, WDI, ILOSTAT
design: simulation
method: dual economy general-equilibrium model
sample: 43
unit: country
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: Harris & Todaro rural-urban migration model
limitations: decreasing inequality through increased rural agricultural capital, while reasonable, has to be a prior assumption; short-term firm exit has to be omitted
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: short-term reduction of skilled-unskilled wage gap but increased unemployment, decreased welfare; long-term increased wage equality and improved social welfare
channels: firm exit from urban manufacturing increases capital to rural agricultural sector
direction: -1
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study looking at the effects of minimum wage increases on a country's income inequality, looking at the impacts in a sample of 43 countries, both LMIC and HIC.
Using a general-equilibrium model, it finds that there are differences between the short-term and long-term effects of the increase:
In the short term it leads to a reduction of the skilled-unskilled wage gap, however an increase in unemployment and welfare,
while in the long term the results are an overall decrease in wage inequality as well as improved social welfare.
It finds those results primarily stem from LMIC which experience significant effects driven by a long-term firm exit from the urban manufacturing sector thereby increasing available capital for the rural agricultural sector, while in HIC the results remain insignificant.
The study uses the Gini coefficient for identifying a country's inequality.
Some limitations of the study include the necessity to omit short-term urban firm exit for the impact to be significant, as well as requiring the, reasonable but necessary, prior assumption of decreased inequality through increased rural agricultural capital.

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cite: Cieplinski2021
author: Cieplinski, A., D’Alessandro, S., Distefano, T., & Guarnieri, P.
year: 2021
title: "Coupling environmental transition and social prosperity: A scenario-analysis of the Italian case"
publisher: Structural Change and Economic Dynamics
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.03.007
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Italy
period: 2010-2014
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: workers
data: ISTAT national accounts 2010,2014; EU-KLEMS LM data
design: simulation
method: dynamic macrosimulation model
sample:
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: models assumption of workers accepting lower income and consumption levels for work time reduction
observation:
- intervention: regulation (working time reduction)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini; employment rates
findings: working time reduction policy significantly increases employment; significantly decreases income inequality
channels: significantly decreases aggregate demand
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: ubi
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini
findings: decreases income inequality; negative impact on environmental outcomes
channels: sustains aggregate demand
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A simulation study on the income inequality effects of both a policy targeting a reduction in working time and the introduction of a universal basic income in Italy.
It finds that while both decrease overall income inequality, measured through Gini coefficient, they do so through different channels.
While provision of a universal basic income sustains aggregate demand, thereby spreading income in a more equitable manner,
working time reductions significantly decrease aggregate demand through lower individual income but significantly increases labour force participation and thus employment.
It also finds that through these channels of changing aggregate demand, the environmental outcomes are oppositional, with work time reduction decreasing and UBI increasing the overall ecological footprint.
One limitation of the study is the modeling assumption that workers will have to accept both lower income and lower consumption levels under a policy of work time reduction through stable labour market entry for the results to hold.

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cite: Clark2019
author: Clark, S., Kabiru, C. W., Laszlo, S., & Muthuri, S.
year: 2019
title: The Impact of Childcare on Poor Urban Women’s Economic Empowerment in Africa
publisher: Demography
uri: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00793-3
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: Kenya
period: 2015-2016
maxlength: 12
targeting: explicit
group: mothers
data: national administrative survey Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System
design: experimental
method: RCT
sample: 738
unit: individual
representativeness: subnational, urban
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: economic empowerment theory
limitations: results restricted to 1 year; relatively high attrition rate
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (childcare)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment probability difference
findings: subsidy increased employment probability (8.5ppts) for poor married mothers
channels: increased ability to work through lower childcare burden
direction: 1
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: subsidy (childcare)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: hours worked
findings: subsidy decreased hours worked without decreasing income for single mothers
channels: allows shifting to jobs with more regular hours
direction: -1 # -1 neg
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
An experimental study on the impacts of providing childcare vouchers to poor women in urban Kenya, estimating the impacts on their economic empowerment.
The empowerment is measured through disaggregated analyses of maternal income, employment probability and hours worked.
It finds that, for married mothers there was a significantly positive effect on employment probability and hours worked, suggesting their increased ability to work through lower childcare costs increasing personal agency.
For single mothers, it finds a negative effect on hours worked, though with a stable income.
The authors suggest this is due to single Kenyan mothers already working increased hours compared to married mothers, though the effect shows the ability of single mothers to shift to jobs with more regular hours, even if they are not compatible with childcare.
Minor limitations of the study are its restriction to effects within a period of 1 year, and a somewhat significant attrition rate to the endline survey.

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cite: Coutinho2006
author: Coutinho, M. J., Oswald, D. P., & Best, A. M.
year: 2006
title: "Differences in Outcomes for Female and Male Students in Special Education"
publisher: Career Development for Exceptional Individuals
uri: https://doi.org/10.1177/08857288060290010401
pubtype: article
discipline: education
country: United States
period: 1972-1994
maxlength: 72
targeting: implicit
group: young women with disabilities
data: National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS-88)
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS; linear and two-step multinomial logistic regression
sample: 13391
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: sample does not include students with more severe impairments due to requirement of self-reporting; selection based on parent-reporting may introduce bias
observation:
- intervention: education (special needs)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: disability; gender; income; age
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: female employment ratio, female income ratio
findings: females with disabilities less likely to be employed, and earned less than males with disability; females less likely to obtain high school diploma; more likely to be biological parent
channels: men employed more months, more hours per week than women; largest income difference in special education and low achievers
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: more men than women in skilled/technical positions across all groups
annotation: |
A study on the impact difference of special education between young men and women on their relative employment probabilities and incomes.
It finds that, overall, young women with disabilities were significantly less likely to be employed, earned less than males with disabilities, had lower likelihood of obtaining a high school diploma and were more likely to be a biological parent.
For the employment outcomes, the primary channels identified were men with disabilities being in employment both more months in the preceding period and more hours per week on average than women with disabilities.
Overall, more women were employed in clerical positions and substantially more men employed in technical or skilled positions for both special education and the control samples.
Similarly, for income there was a gender-based difference for the whole sample, though with substantial internal heterogeneity showing only marginal differences between men and women in the high-achieving subsample and the largest differences in the low-achieving and special needs subsample.
The suggestions include a strengthening of personal agency to remain in education longer and delay having children through self-advocacy and -determination transition services for young women to supplement structural education efforts.
Some limitations include initial subsample selection based on parent-reporting possibly introducing selection bias and the special education sample not including students with more severe impairments due to the requirement of self-reporting.

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cite: Davies2022
author: Davies, J. M., Brighton, L. J., Reedy, F., & Bajwah, S.
year: 2022
title: "Maternity provision, contract status, and likelihood of returning to work: Evidence from research intensive universities in the UK"
publisher: Gender Work And Organization
uri: https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12843
pubtype: article
discipline: organization
country: United Kingdom
period: 2013-2018
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: high-skill female workers
data: FOI data of Russell Group universities
design: observational
method: cross-sectional; pooled odds ratios
sample: 17
unit: employer
representativeness: local
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: scarce high-level academic female representation through 'leaky pipeline'
limitations: fragmented data restricting observable variables; doest not account for atypical/short-term contracts
observation:
- intervention: paid leave (childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (rtw ratios)
findings: significantly decreased employment probability for rtw on fixed-term contracts compared to open-ended contracts; most universities provided limited access to maternity payment for fixed-contract staff
channels: fewer included provisions in fixed-term contracts; strict policies on payments if contract ends before end of maternity leave/minimum length of rtw; long-term continuous service requirements for extended payments
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: study on public university employers only
annotation: |
A study on the return to work ratios for high-skill women workers in public academic universities in the United Kingdom, comparing the results for those in fixed-term contract work versus those in open-ended contracts.
It finds that there is a significantly decreased return to work probability for those working under fixed-term contracts, and most universities providing policies with more limited access to maternity payment for fixed-contract staff.
This is possibly due to provisions in the policies implicitly working against utilization under fixed-terms:
there are strict policies on payments if a contract ends before the maternity leave period is over, and obligations on repayments if not staying in the position long enough after rtw.
Additionally, most policies require long-term continuous service before qualifying for enhanced payments in the maternity policies.
There is high internal heterogeneity between the univserities, primarily due to the diverging maternity policy documents, only a small number of the overall dataset providing favorable conditions for fixed-term work within.

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cite: Debowicz2014
author: Debowicz, D., & Golan, J
year: 2014
title: "The impact of Oportunidades on human capital and income distribution in Mexico: A top-down/bottom-up approach"
publisher: Journal of Policy Modeling
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2013.10.014
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Mexico
period: 2008
maxlength:
targeting: explicit
group: poor
data: national administrative survey Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (ENIGH) 2008
design: simulation
method: general equilibrium model, microeconometric simulation model
sample: 30000
unit: household
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: human capital theory
limitations: analytical household-level limitations; no indirect cost-effects able to be accounted for; static model
observation:
- intervention: direct transfers (cash)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; generational
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: raises average income of poorest households by 23%; increasing skills decreases inequality
channels: cash influx; positive wage effect benefitting those who keep their children at work; direct benefit for human capital increase (school attendance), indirect benefit for increased scarcity of unskilled labor
direction: -1
significance: 2
notes: study attempts to explictly account for spillover effects and capture conditionality for school attendance
annotation: |
A study looking at the impact of the cash transfer programme Oportunidades in Mexico, conditioned on a household's children school attendance, on income inequality among others.
It finds that a combination of effects raises the average income of the poorest households by 23 percent.
The authors argue in the short run this benefits households through the direct cash influx itself, as well as generating a positive wage effect benefitting those who keep their children at work.
For the estimation of income inequality it uses the Gini coefficient.
Additionally, over the long-term for the children in the model there is a direct benefit for those whose human capital is increased due to the programme, but also an indirect benefit for those who did not increase their human capital, because of the increased scarcity of unskilled labor as a secondary effect.
Due to the relatively low cost of the programme if correctly targeted, it seems to have a significantly positive effect on the Mexican economy and its income equality.

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cite: Delesalle2021
author: Delesalle, E.
year: 2021
title: "The effect of the Universal Primary Education program on consumption and on the employment sector: Evidence from Tanzania"
publisher: World Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105345
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Tanzania
period: 2002-2012
maxlength: 36
targeting: implicit
group: rural workers
data: Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Population and Housing Census 2002; Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA)
design: quasi-experimental
method: difference-in-difference approach; IV approach
sample: 433606
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: human capital theory
limitations: can not directly identify intervention compliers, constructing returns for household heads; 'villagization' effect may have impacted unobserved variables affecting returns
observation:
- intervention: education (universal)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: spatial; education
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: education
findings: improved overall rural education; education inequalities persist along gender, geographical, income lines
channels: villagization effect, increased education access
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: education (universal)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: spatial; education; gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: consumption
findings: sg increase for formal wage and agricultural work for women; sg increase in non-agricultural wage work for men; returns to education lower in agriculture than other self-employment/wage work
channels: sector choice changes, increased individual productivity
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: programme increased primary education access and introduced more technical curriculum
annotation: |
A study looking at the returns of the Tanzanian 'Universal Primary Education' program on consumption and on rural labour market outcomes.
The programme both attempted to increase access to schools but also changed curricula to contain more technical classes, judged relevant to increase equity in rural areas.
Even though the programme aims to increase universal equality of access to education, the study finds that gender, geographical and income inequalities persist throughout, with individuals that complete primary education more likely to be male urban wage workers.
The study measures returns purely on consumption of households to show the estimated effect on their productivity ---
here, it finds generally positive returns but greatest for non-agricultural work, self-employed or as wage work.
Importantly, the introduction of more technical classes, however, also changes employment sector choices, with men working less in agricultural work and more in non-farm wage sectors and an increased probability for rural women to both work in agriculture and to work formally.
Limitations of the study include the inability to directly identify intervention compliers and having to construct returns for each household head only and a possibly unobserved 'villagization' effect by bringing people together in community villages for their education leading to other unobserved variable impacting the returns.

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cite: Dieckhoff2015
author: Dieckhoff, M., Gash, V., & Steiber, N.
year: 2015
title: "Measuring the effect of institutional change on gender inequality in the labour market"
publisher: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2014.12.001
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: Austria; Belgium; Czechia; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Italy; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Slovakia; Spain; Sweden; and the UK
period: 1992-2007
maxlength: 192
targeting:
group:
data: repeat cross-sectional data, national survey dataset European Labour Force Survey
design: quasi-experimental
method: two-step multilevel modelling; OLS; multinomial logistic regression, fixed effects approach
sample: 18
unit: country
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: averaged across national contexts may obscure specific insights
observation:
- intervention: collective action (unionization)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: men and women increased standard employment contracts with increased unionization; female employment does not decrease
channels: increased standard employment contract probability
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: PRELIMINARY EXTRACTION; EXTRACTION OF DEREGULATION OF TEMPORARY CONTRACTS; FAMILY POLICIES
annotation: |
A study on the effect of trade unionization in European labour markets, with a specific emphasis on its effects on gender inequalities.
It finds, first of all, that increased unionization is related to the probability of being employed on a standard employment contract for both men and women.
It also finds no evidence that men seem to carry increased benefits from increased unionization, although in combination with temporary contract and family policy re-regulations, men do seem to experience greater benefits than women.
At the same time women's employment under standard contracts does not decrease, such that there is no absolute detrimental effect for either gender.
It does, however, pose the question of the allocation of relative benefits between the genders through unionization efforts.
The study is limited in that, by averaging outcomes across European nations, it can not account for nation-specific labour market contexts or gender disaggregations.

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cite: Dustmann2012
author: Dustmann, C., & Schönberg, U.
year: 2012
title: Expansions in Maternity Leave Coverage and Children’s Long-Term Outcomes
publisher: "Economic journal: applied economics"
uri: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.190
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Germany
period: 1979-1992
maxlength: 40
targeting: explicit
group: working mothers
data: national administrative Social Security Records (1975-2008)
design: quasi-experimental
method: difference-in-difference analysis
sample: 13000
unit: individual
representativeness: national, census
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: sample restricted to mothers who go on maternity leave; restricted control group identification
observation:
- intervention: paid leave (6 months childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: income
findings: sign. positive effects among all wage segments for mothers cumulative income 40 months after childbirth
channels: provision of job protection and short-term monetary benefits
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: paid leave (36 months childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: income
findings: marginally sign. negative effect for low-wage mothers after 10month paid leave; significant negative effects among for all mothers cumulative income for 36 month paid leave
channels: long-term extension is unpaid leave, only providing job protection
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: paid leave (childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (rtw share)
findings: sign. increase in months away from work among all wage segments, positively correlated with length of paid leave; majority rtw after leave end, with slight decrease for 18-36month leave period
channels:
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: no sign. impact on child outcomes; possible negative effect for long-term leave due to child requiring external stimuli and lowered mother's income
annotation: |
A study interested in the long-run effects on children's outcomes of increasing the period of paid leave for mothers in Germany.
While the study focuses on the children's outcomes, it also analyses the effects on the return to work rates and cumulative incomes of the policies within the first 40 months after childbirth.
It finds that, while short-term increases of paid leave periods (up to 6 months) significantly increased incomes, over longer periods (10-36 months) the cumulative incomes in fact decreased significantly,
marginally for low-wage mothers for 10 month periods, and across all wage segments for 36 month periods.
For the share of mothers returning to work, it finds that there is a significant increase in the months away from work among all wage segments for all paid leave period increases, positively correlated with their length.
Still similar numbers of mothers return once the leave period ends, though with significant decreases for leave periods from 18 to 36 months.
For its analysis of long-term educational outcomes on children, however, it does not find any evidence for the expansions improving children's outcomes, even suggesting a possible decrease of educational attainment for the paid leave extension to 36 months.
Some limitations of the study include its sample being restricted to mothers who go on maternity leave and some control group identification restrictions possibly introducing some sampling bias.

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cite: Emigh2018
author: Emigh, R. J., Feliciano, C., O’Malley, C., & Cook-Martin, D.
year: 2018
title: "The effect of state transfers on poverty in post-socialist eastern europe"
publisher: Social Indicators Research
uri: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1660-y
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Hungary; Bulgaria; Romania
period: 1999-2002
maxlength: 24
targeting: implicit
group: poor people
data: panel data
design: quasi-experimental
method: two-wave panel analysis; OLS; random effects negative binomial model
sample: 7949
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: institutionalist perspective; underclass perspective; neoclassical perspective
limitations: does not have long-term panel data to fully analyse underclass/neoclassical perspectives
observation:
- intervention: direct transfers (cash)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: income; ethnicity; gender
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: poverty
findings: level of payments may have been too small to eliminate long-term adverse effects of market transition; in each country case state transfers to individuals reduced their poverty and were at least short-term beneficial; poverty most feminized in Hungary, least feminized in Bulgaria
channels: poverty may have feminized as market transitions progressed; larger positive transfer effects for low-education households
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: increased probability for poverty of low-education, large, Roma households
annotation: |
A study on the effects of direct state transfers to people in poverty in the post-socialist countries of Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.
It first lookst at the correlations of socio-demographic characteristics with poverty to find that in each country there was an increased probability for poverty of low-education, larger and predominantly Roma households.
It also found that poverty itself was most feminized Hungary, the country with the most advanced market transition in the study period, and least feminized in Bulgaria, the country with the least advanced market transition, and suggests that poverty may have feminized as the market transitions progressed.
For the state transfers it found that while the level of payments may have been too small to eliminate longer-term adverse effects of the market transitions,
in each country's case the transfers to individuals reduced their poverty and were beneficial at least in the short term.
The authors thus suggest that their findings may be compatible both with an institutionalist perspective seeing poverty-eliminating benefits in the short term and with an underclass perspective which contends that nonetheless the transfers do not eliminate the deprivations members of disadvantaged groups face, while providing little evidence for generating welfare dependency proposed in a more neoclassical perspective.
However, due to no long-term panel data available to fully analyse the underclass and neoclassical arguments, these findings should not be understood too generalizable.

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cite: Ferguson2015
author: Ferguson, J.-P.
year: 2015
title: "The control of managerial discretion: Evidence from unionization’s impact on employment segregation"
publisher: American Journal of Sociology
uri: https://doi.org/10.1086/683357
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: United States
period: 1984-2010
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: women workers
data: AFL-CIO, NLRB datasets, amended with Current Population Survey
design: quasi-experimental
method: regression-discontinuity RD test
sample: 50000
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: most of effects may be caused by unsobservables
observation:
- intervention: collective action (unionization)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: gender; ethnicity
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: stronger unionization associated with more women and minorities in management, but only marginally significant
channels: possible self-selection into unionization
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of a more unionized workforce in the United States, on the representation of women and minorities in the management of enterprises.
It finds that while stronger unionization is associated both with more women and more minorities represented in the overall workforce and in management, this effect is only marginally significant.
Additionally, there are drivers which may be based on unobservables and not a direct effect ---
it may be a selection effect of more unionized enterprises.
It uses union elections as its base of analysis, and thus can not exclude self-selection effects of people joining more heavily unionized enterprises rather than unionization increasing representation in its conclusions.

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cite: Field2019
author: Field, E., Pande, R., Rigol, N., Schaner, S., & Moore, C. T.
year: 2019
title: "On Her Own Account: How Strengthening Women’s Financial Control Affects Labor Supply and Gender Norms"
publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research
uri: https://doi.org/10.3386/w26294
pubtype: working paper
discipline: development
country: India
period: 2013-2017
maxlength: 36
targeting: explicit
group: women workers
data: baseline, 2 follow-up surveys; MGNREGS Program Management information system (MIS)
design: experimental
method: RCT; individual account (partial treatment), account + training (full treatment)
sample: 5851
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, rural
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: financial empowerment as normative tool
limitations: possibility of upward bias due to attenuation over time
observation:
- intervention: training (financial)
institutional: 0
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: gender; spatial
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment; hours worked
findings: short-term deposits into women's own accounts and training increased labour supply; long-term increased acceptance of female work and female hours worked
channels: increased bargaining power through greater control of income
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: long-run effects for constrained women working driven by private sector
annotation: |
An experimental study looking at the effects of granting women increased access to their own financial accounts and training, on their employment and hours worked, as well as long-term economic empowerment.
The background of the experiment was the rural Indian MGNREGS[^1] programme which, despite ostensibly mandated gender wage parity, runs the risk of discouraging female workers and restrictring their agency by depositing earned wages into a single household account --- predominantly owned by the male head of household.
To grant increased financial access, the treatment changed the deposits into newly opened individual accounts for the women workers, as well as providing additional training to some women.
It found that, short-term, the deposits into women's individual accounts in combination with provided training increased their labour supply, while longer-term there was an increased acceptance of female work in affected households and a significant increase in women's hours worked.
The impacts on increased hours worked were concentrated on those households where previously women worked relatively lower amounts and there were stronger norms against female work while less constrained households' impacts dissipated over time.
The authors suggest the primary channel is the newly increased bargaining power through having a greater control of one's income, and that it in turn also reflects onto gender norms themselves.
[^1]: The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, one of the largest redistribution programmes on the household level in the world, entitling each household to up to 100 days of work per year.

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cite: Gates2000
author: Gates, L. B.
year: 2000
title: Workplace Accommodation as a Social Process
publisher: Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation
uri: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009445929841
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: United States
period: 2000
maxlength: 12
targeting: explicit
group: mentally ill workers
data: survey, protocol
design: qualitative
method: action protocol development
sample: 12
unit: individual
representativeness: local
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations:
observation:
- intervention: counseling (workplace accommodation)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: disability
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (rtw)
findings: successful accommodation requires social component; relationship largest barrier; agency of returnee must be strengthened
channels: unsuccessful accommodations rely on the functional aspect; supervisors play primary role in success of accommodation process
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A qualitative study on the mechanisms of workplace accomodation for people with mental health conditions to allow their successful return-to-work.
The intervention is based on an accommodation which disaggregates the effects of social and technical components of the process and included a disclosure and psychoeducational plan.
It finds that successfull return-to-work through accommodation requires consideration of the social component ('who is involved'), with unsuccessful accommodation often only relying on the functional aspect ('what is involved').
The primary barrier identified for successful return-to-work are actually relationship issues not functional ones, with supervisors playing a key role for the success of the accommodation process.
Additionally, it highlighted the necessity of strengthening the individual agency of the returnee, accomplished in the intervention through a concrete training plan with the worker but also with other key workplace players such as the supervisors.
Additionally, providers must be willing to develop a disclosure plan with the employee and enter the workplace itself to adequately assist in the accommodation process.
Limitations to the study include the limited generalizability of its findings with a small non-randomized sample size and restriction to mental health disability.

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cite: Gilbert2001
author: Gilbert, A., Phimister, E., & Theodossiou, I.
year: 2001
title: The potential impact of the minimum wage in rural areas
publisher: Regional Studies
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400120084759
pubtype: article
discipline: economic
country: United Kingdom
period: 1991-1998
maxlength: 84
targeting: implicit
group: rural workers
data: national administrative panel survey British Household Panel Survey (BHPS)
design: observational
method: observational methods with counterfactual approach
sample: 5500
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, rural
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: has to assume no effects on employment
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: spatial; income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: overall insignificant decrease of income inequality; policy will have spatial dimension with rural households more affected; larger positive impact for remote rural households
channels: rural component depends on proximity to urban areas through having access to urban markets
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study looking at the distributional effects of introducing a minimum wage in Britain, with a specific spatial component.
Overall it finds little effect on income inequality in the country.
It finds that the effects on rural areas differ depending on their proximity to urban areas.
While overall income inequality only decreases a small amount, the intervention results in effective targeting with remote rural households having around twice the reduction in inequality compared to others.
Rural areas that are accessible to urban markets are less affected, with insignificant impacts to overall income inequality reduction.
One limit of the study is that it has to assume no effects on employment after the enaction of the minimum wage for its results to hold.

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cite: Go2010
author: Go, D. S., Kearney, M., Korman, V., Robinson, S., & Thierfelder, K.
year: 2010
title: Wage subsidy and labour market flexibility in south africa
publisher: Journal of development studies
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380903428456
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: South Africa
period: 2003
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: low-/semi-skilled workers
data: GCE model based on 2003 LM data; Pauw & Edwards (2006)
design: simulation
method: micro-simulation; multi-sector, multi-labour computable general equilibrium model
sample: 43
unit: sector
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: potentially reduced generalizability due to simulation's assumptions
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (wage)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty headcount ratio
findings: overall decrease in FGT ratio, about 1.6% of households moving out of poverty; similar changes in urban/rural spaces; greater gains in poorer households
channels: income gains for poorer households
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: subsidy (wage)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: Overall reduction in income inequality (0.5 ppt), not significant effects
channels: income redistribution; increased formal employment for low-/medium-skill workers
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study modeling the effects of a targeted wage subsidy aimed at low- and medium-skilled workers and provided to their employers as an incentive for new job creations, looking at its effects on poverty and income inequality in South Africa.
The study finds that, using the Gini coefficient, the overall income inequality reduced by 0.5 percentage points, which provides an insignificant outcome.
This primarily occurs because of an overall income redistribution and especially an increase in formal employment for low- and medium-skill workers.
Using an absolute poverty headcount ratio, it finds that a significant 1.6 per cent of households move out of poverty, with similar changes observed across urban and rural spaces.
They attribute this primarily to income gains for poorer households and the targeting benefiting the poorest households most by providing them greater income gains.
Limitations of the study include the general equibilibrium model approach being potentially restricted by its prior assumptions in validity and generalizability, as well as potentially not accounting for unobservables or exogenous shocks.

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cite: Hardoy2015
author: Hardoy, I., & Schøne, P.
year: 2015
title: "Enticing even higher female labor supply: The impact of cheaper day care"
publisher: Review of Economics of the Household
uri: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-013-9215-8
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Norway
period: 1995-2006
maxlength: 48
targeting: implicit
group: mothers
data: Norwegian Labor and Welfare Service (NAV); Register for Employers and Employees
design: quasi-experimental
method: triple-difference approach
sample: 200_530
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: simultaneous capacity extension may bias results
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; education; migration
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment; hours worked
findings: child care price reduction increased female labour supply (about 5pct); no impact on mothers already participating in labour market; stronger impact on low-education mothers, low-income households; no significant impact on immigrant mothers
channels: day care expenditure larger part of low-income/-education households creating larger impact; may also be due to average lower employment rates for those households
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the labour force impacts for women of reductions in child care costs in Norway.
It finds that overall the reductions in child care cost increased the female labour supply in the country (by about 5 per cent),
while there were no significant impacts on mothers which already participated in the labour market.
It also finds some internal heterogeneity, with the impact being strongest for low-education mothers and low-income households,
a finding the authors expected due to day care expenditure representing a larger part of those households' budgets thus creating a larger impact.
Though it may alternatively also be generated by the lower average pre-intervention employment rate for those households.
Interestingly when disaggregating by native and immigrant mothers there is only a significant impact on native mothers,
though the authors do not form an inference on why this difference would be.
A limitation of the study is that there was a simultaneous child care capacity increase in the country,
which may bias the labour market results due to being affected by both the cost reduction and the capacity increase.

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cite: Hojman2019
author: Hojman, A., & López Bóo, F.
year: 2019
title: Cost-Effective Public Daycare in a Low-Income Economy Benefits Children and Mothers
publisher: Inter-American Development Bank
uri: https://doi.org/10.18235/0001849
pubtype: working paper
discipline: development
country: Nicaragua
period: 2013-2015
maxlength: 24
targeting: implicit
group: poor mothers
data: baseline survey and 12-month follow-up survey
design: experimental
method: RCT; instrumental variable; marginal treatment effects
sample: 1442
unit: individual
representativeness: subnational, urban
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: effect on employment is insignificant with IV on randomization alone; relatively small overall sample
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (childcare)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: gender; generational; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: free childcare significantly increases work participation of mothers (14ppts); increases human capital of children
channels: subsidy removes associated childcare costs (fewer childcare hours)
direction: 1 # 0 neg / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 mfg / 2 cig
notes:
annotation: |
An experimental study looking at the effects of providing free childcare for poor urban mothers in Nicaragua under the 'Programo Urbano', looking at the effects on inequality for mothers and children.
It finds that providing free childcare for young children of poor mothers significantly increases the employment probability of the mothers (14ppts) independently of the childcare quality.
It also finds significantly positive impacts on the human capital of the children, though dependent on the quality of childcare facilities.
This suggests childcare costs being removed through a quasi-subsidy reducing the required childcare time burden on mothers, increasing parental agency and employment choices.
Some limitations to the study include a relatively small overall sample size, as well as employment effects becoming insignificant when the effect is measured on randomization alone (without an additional instrumental variable).

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cite: Khan2021
author: Khan, M. A., Walmsley, T., & Mukhopadhyay, K.
year: 2021
title: "Trade liberalization and income inequality: The case for Pakistan"
publisher: Journal of Asian Economics
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2021.101310
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Pakistan
period: 2010-2011
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: workers
data: GTAP database; SAM Pakistan 2010-2011 (IFPRI)
design: simulation
method: computable general equilibrium model; MyGTAP model
sample: 30
unit: region
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: generalizability might be reduced due to production factor reallocations specific to the rural poor context of Pakistan
observation:
- intervention: trade liberalization
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; spatial
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: mixed results for free-trade agreements (some Large TA negative correlation w Gini, some regional/bilateral also); impact of trade liberalization depends on micro-economic factors; greater mobility dissipates short-term effects; long-term some increase in income equality
channels: increases in income of poor rural agricultural farm households dependent on grain (with largest export grain rising under most FTA, livestock falling); equity increases through increased wages of farm workers, when this did not happen generally equity decrease; wage compression effects
direction: 0 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A simulation study on the effects of trade liberalization through FTA on income inequality in Pakistan between different households, measured through the Gini coefficient.
It finds that there is no clear general direction for changes through FTA visible, with its impact primarily depending on micro-economic factors.
Some large trade agreements are negatively correlated with the Gini while others are positively related, similar to regional and bilateral agreements.
Gnerally, this is due to increases in the income of poor rural agricultural farm households being dependent on grain (which is the largest export good often rising under FTA), while livestock predominantly owned by poor rural households decreases in returns under FTA.
The deciding channel can then be increases on the wages of farm workers (after among others grain export increases) increasing income equity, which, when they do not happen, can in turn lead to an overall decrease.
Lastly, there are wage compression effects between urban and rural households, with richer urban households often decreasing processed food or service production.
A greater mobility would dissipate all short-term gains and losses, as changes would get more evenly distributed across regions and households, while over the long term some positive aspects on income equality are visible if increased agricultural growth can be sustained.
The study may have some limits to its generalizability due to the production factor reallocations for agricultural households being specific to the rural poor context in Pakistan.

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cite: Kuriyama2021
author: Kuriyama, A., & Abe, N.
year: 2021
title: "Decarbonisation of the power sector to engender a 'Just transition’ in Japan: Quantifying local employment impacts"
publisher: Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110610
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Japan
period: 2016
maxlength:
targeting:
group: rural workers
data: Historical Data of Power Supply and Demand Record Data
design: simulation
method: multi-step projection modelling; use Gini coefficient
sample: 10
unit: region
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: has to assume amount of generated power as stable square function increase 2016-2050; employment numbers based on initial estimated model data only
observation:
- intervention: infrastructure
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: spatial
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: power sector decarbonisation positively impacts rural workers through increased employment probability
channels: attachment of larger-scale renewable energy to rural sectors increases employment scarcity
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: highest impact in construction and manufacturing sector, long-term large impact in power sector, stable impacts throughout in service sectors and others
annotation: |
A study looking at the effects of Japan's move to decarbonise its energy sector on employment, especially rural employment.
It finds that, while employment in general is positively affected, especially rural sectors benefit from additional employment probability.
This is due to the renewable energy sector, while able to utilise urban areas for smaller scale power generation, being largely attached to rural areas for larger scale projects such as geothermal, wind power or large-scale solar generation.
The study also suggests some possible inequality being created in between the different regions of Japan due to the Hokkaido region having limited transmission line capacity and locational imbalance between demand and potential supplies.
Limitations include its design as a projection model with multiple having to make strong assumptions about initial employment numbers and their extrapolation into the future,
as well as having to assume the amount of generated power to increase as a stable square function.

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cite: Li2022
author: Li, Y., & Sunder, N.
year: 2022
title: Land inequality and workfare policies
publisher: Journal of development studies
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2021.2008362
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: India
period: 2005-2006
maxlength: 12
targeting: implicit
group: potential labour force
data: Indian Agricultural Census (2000, 2005); national administrative panel data MGNREGA public data portal
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS, instrumental variable approach
sample: 414
unit: district
representativeness: national, census
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: political capture theory
limitations: sample attrition in matching NREGA districts to GINI data; assumption of no institutional/cultural unobservables
observation:
- intervention: work programme
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; spatial
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (LFP rate per land ownership through Gini)
findings: work programme generally increases LFP; but internal heterogeneity, difference in job provision not due to public job demand changes, caste, religion; previous capital inequality (land ownership) strongly affects programme efficacy
channels: landlords oppose implementation due to general wage increases following, lobby against workfare introduction; decreased bargaining power of labour in more inequal districts
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of previous inequalities on the outcomes of a work programme in India intended to provide job opportunity equality for already disadvantages population.
It specifically looks at the NREGA programme in India, and takes the land-ownership inequality measured through the Gini coefficient as its preceding inequality.[^nrega]
The study finds that there is significantly negative relationship between the Gini coefficient and the provision of jobs through the work programme.
In other words, the workfare policy implemented at least in part to reduce a district's inequality seems to be less effective if there is a larger prior capital inequality.
The authors see the primary channel to be the landlords' opposition to broad workfare programme introduction since they are often followed by overall wage increases in the districts.
They suggest that in more inequally distributed channels the landlords can use a more unequal power structure to lobby and effect political power decreasing the effectiveness of the programmes,
in addition to often reduced collective bargaining power on the side of labour in these districts.
The results show the same trends for measurement of land inequality using the share of land owned by the top 10 per cent largest holdings instead.
[^nrega]: The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA) is a workfare programme implemented in India, the largest of its kind, which seeks to provide 100 days of employment for each household per year. It was rolled out from 2005 over several phases until it reached all districts in India in 2008.

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cite: Liyanaarachchi2016
author: Liyanaarachchi, T. S., Naranpanawa, A., & Bandara, J. S.
year: 2016
title: "Impact of trade liberalisation on labour market and poverty in Sri Lanka. An integrated macro-micro modelling approach"
publisher: Economic Modelling
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.07.008
pubtype: article
discipline: economy
country: Sri Lanka
period: 2009-2010
maxlength: 12
targeting: implicit
group: workers
data: national administrative Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES)
design: simulation
method: macro-micro computable general equilibrium model
sample: 19958
unit: household
representativeness: national
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: static model not able to account for transition paths; no disaggregated sectoral input-output data available
observation:
- intervention: trade liberalization
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Atkinson index; S-Gini index; Atkinson-Gini index; Entropy index
findings: reduced absolute poverty for tariff elimination only, mixed results but reduction for tariff elim and fiscal policy changes together; income inequality increases in long-run in all sectors
channels: increased wage differences (esp for manager, professionals, technicians and urban workers); low-income households more dependent on private/gov transfers which do not increase with trade liberalization
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A simulation model on the effects of trade liberalization in Sri Lanka on income inequality and absolute poverty.
It finds that the complete elimination of tariffs results in an overall reduction in absolute poverty, while tariff elimination with resulting fiscal policy responses to balance the budget would result in more mixed results but still pointing to an absolute reduction in poverty.
On the other hand, income inequality is seen to increase for most sectors over the short term and for all sectors over the long term.
The primary channels for this change are increased wage differences --- especially the increased wages for managers, professionals and technicians, as well as increased differences between urban workers ---
and low-income households being more dependent on private or government transfers, which do not increase with trade liberalization.

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cite: Militaru2019
author: Militaru, E., Popescu, M. E., Cristescu, A., & Vasilescu, M. D.
year: 2019
title: "Assessing minimum wage policy implications upon income inequalities: The case of Romania"
publisher: Sustainability
uri: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092542
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Romania
period: 2013-2014
maxlength: 12
targeting: explicit
group: low-income workers
data: EU Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC)
design: simulation
method: microsimulation (EUROMOD); counterfactual analysis
sample: 7500
unit: household
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: dependent on simulation order; can not account for tax evasion, behavioural changes; over-representation of employees in sample; remaining unobservables on inequality outcomes
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; gender
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: small decrease in wage inequality; larger impact for women
channels: concentration of workers at minimum wage level matters, women make up larger part; increase in number of wage earners in total number of employees
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: does not see minimum wage increase as most efficient income inequality reduction policy per se, but sees efficiency possibly enhanced by accompanying skills development programs
annotation: |
An analysis of the effects of minimum wage increases on income inequality in Romania.
It finds that, generally, minimum wage increases correlate with small wage inequality decreases, but carry a larger impact for women.
The channels for the policies effects are two-fold in that there is an inequality decrease as the number of wage earners in total number of employees increases,
as well as the concentration of workers at the minimum level mattering --- the probable channel for a larger impact on women since they make up larger parts of low-income and minimum wage households in Romania.
Limitations to the study are some remaining unobservables for the final inequality outcomes (such as other wages or incomes), the sample over-representing employees and not being able to account for any tax evasion or behavioural changes.

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cite: Mukhopadhaya2003
author: Mukhopadhaya, P.
year: 2003
title: "Trends in income disparity and equality enhancing (?) education policies in the development stages of Singapore"
publisher: International Journal of Educational Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(01)00051-7
pubtype: article
discipline: education
country: Singapore
period: 1980-1995
maxlength:
targeting:
group:
data: Census Reports, Yearbook of Statistics Snagopre
design: observational
method: regressions with multivariate decomposition
sample:
unit:
representativeness: national, census
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: higher education institutional context may make generalizability outside Singapore harder
observation:
- intervention: education
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: migration; generational; income; ethnicity
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff; Theil index; relative mean income
findings: non-uniform representation of academic abilities across parental education backgrounds; education interventions may exacerbate income inequality through bad targeting
channels: primary income inequality for migrants through between-occupational inequality; advantaged income brackets also advantaged in educative achievement brackets; system of financing higher education in Singapore further disadvantages poorer households
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: only contains labour market ancillary outcomes but strong arguments for generational inequalities; PRELIMINARY EXTRACTION
annotation: |
A study on the income inequality in Singapore and how national education policies impact this inequality, looking especially at the 'Yearly Awards' scheme and the 'Edusave Entrance Scholarship for Independent Schools'.
It finds that, generally, income inequality for migrants in Singapore is relatively high, primarily due to generated between-occupational income inequalities and migration policies which further stimulate occupational segregation.
Then, for the higher-education interventions, it identifies issues which may exacerbate the existing inequalities along these lines:
Already-advantaged (high-income) households generally stem from non-migration households and are also reflected in higher representation of high-achievement education brackets.
The education policies thus may exacerbate income inequality through their bad targeting when considering inter-generational academic achievements with high-education households remaining the primary beneficiaries of the policies, a finding which is more significant for the 'Edusave Entrance Scholarship for Independent Schools' than the 'Yearly Awards' scheme which has fewer benefit accruals to wealthier households.
More generally, the study suggests that the system of financing for higher education in Singapore aiming for providing equal education opportunity for all, may in fact further disadvantage poorer, low-income households that have a low-education parental background.

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cite: Mun2018
author: Mun, E., & Jung, J.
year: 2018
title: "Policy generosity, employer heterogeneity, and women’s employment opportunities: The welfare state paradox reexamined"
publisher: American Sociological Review
uri: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418772857
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: Japan
period: 1992-2009
maxlength: 84
targeting: explicit
group: working mothers
data: Japan Company Handbook for Job Searchers
design: quasi-experimental
method: potential outcomes framework; fixed-effects analysis
sample: 600
unit: enterprise
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: welfare state paradox (over-representation of women in low-authority jobs in progressive welfare states)
limitations: limited generalizability with unique Japanese LM institutional features; limited ability to explain voluntary effects as lasting or as symbolic compliance and impression management
observation:
- intervention: paid leave (childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: job quality
findings: no change for promotions for firms not previously providing leave, positive promotion impact for firms already providing leave; incentive-based policies may lead to larger effects
channels: voluntary compliance to maintain positive reputations
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: paid leave (childcare)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: no increase in hiring discrimination against women reflected as decreased employment probability
channels: decreases may be due to supply-side mechanisms based on individual career planning and reinforced existing gender division of household labour
direction: 0 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of introductions of a variety of maternity leave laws in Japan on the employment numbers and job quality of women.
Contrary to notions of demand-side mechanisms of the welfare state paradox, with women being less represented in high-authority employment positions due to hiring or workplace discrimination against them with increased maternity benefits,
it finds that this is not the case for the Japanese labour market between 1992 and 2009.
There were no increases in hiring discrimination against women, and either no significant change in promotions for firms not providing paid leave before the laws or instead a positive impact on promotions for firms that already provided paid leave.
The authors suggest the additional promotions were primarily based on voluntary compliance of firms in order to maintain positive reputations, signaled through a larger positive response to incentive-based laws than for mandate-based ones.
Additionally, the authors make the conjecture that the welfare paradox may rather be due to supply-side mechanisms, based on individual career planning, as well as reinforced along existing gender divisions of household labour which may increase alongside the laws.
Limitations of the study include foremost its limited generalizability due to the unique Japanese institutional labour market structure (with many employments, for example, being within a single firm until retirement), as well as no ability yet to measure the true causes and effects of adhering to the voluntary incentive-based labour policies, with lasting effects or done as symbolic compliance efforts and mere impression management.

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cite: Pi2016
author: Pi, J., & Zhang, P.
year: 2016
title: "Hukou system reforms and skilled-unskilled wage inequality in China"
publisher: China Economic Review
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2016.08.009
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: China
period: 1988-2013
maxlength: 12
targeting: implicit
group: urban workers
data: national administrative Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2010-13
design: simulation
method: general equilibrium model
sample:
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, urban
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: generalizability restricted due to specific institutional contexts of Chinese hukou systems; no disaggregation to private/public sector; job search not part of model
observation:
- intervention: social security; education (access)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; migration; ethnicity
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: decile ratios (90th to 10th)
findings: increased access to social security for urban migrants decreases wage inequality between skilled-unskilled urban workers if skilled sector is more capital intensive than unskilled sector
channels:
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the impacts of allowing increased access to social welfare provisions and education to urban migrants in China, looking at the effects on wage inequality between skilled and unskilled sectors and workers.
It uses skilled-unskilled inequality instead of rural-urban inequalities since the real wages of the rural sector are already much lower in China, making comparisons along the 90th to 10th decile ratios more difficult.
The study finds that reforms to increase access to social security and education for urban migrants decreases wage inequality between the sectors if the skilled sector is more capital intensive than the unskilled sector, though it makes no specific identification of individual channels.
There are several limitations to the study such as no disaggregation between the private and the (very important for the Chinese economy) public sector, job searching not being part of the model, and, most importantly, a severely restricted generalizability due to the reform characteristics being strongly bound to the institutional contexts of Chinese *hukou* systems.

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cite: Poppen2017
author: Poppen, M., Lindstrom, L., Unruh, D., Khurana, A., & Bullis, M.
year: 2017
title: "Preparing youth with disabilities for employment: An analysis of vocational rehabilitation case services data"
publisher: Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation
uri: https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-160857
pubtype: article
discipline: health
country: United States
period: 2003-2013
maxlength:
targeting: explicit
group: disabled young adults
data: state administrative Oregon Rehabilitation Case Automation system (ORCA)
design: quasi-experimental
method: multivariate logistic regression; OLS
sample: 4443
unit: individual
representativeness: subnational
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: data gathered for service delivery not research may provide lower reliability; no measurement for service quality; no nationally representative sample lowers generalizability
observation:
- intervention: training (vocational rehabilitation)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: disability; gender; age
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: significantly decreased employment probability for women, having mental illness or traumatic brain injury as primary disability, multiple disabilities, interpersonal/self-care impediment, receiving social security benefits; youth-transition programme, more VR services significantly increased
channels:
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study looking at the effects of vocational rehabilitation on employment probabilities, as well as the factors influencing successful employment, in the United States.
It finds that the primary factors negatively correlated with sucessful employment were for women in the sample, for having mental illness or traumatic brain injury as the primary disability, having multiple disabilities, an interpersonal or self-care impediment and receiving social security benefits.
On the other hand, having participated in a youth-transition training programme, as well as making use of more vocational rehabilitation services, are correlated with an increased employment probability.
It thereby highlights the gendered dimension of employment probabilities and points to a necessity to focus training and rehabilitation efforts along multiple dimensions.
Some limitations of the study include its limited generalizability, having a sample located in a single state, as well as a dataest intended for service provision not academic pursuits possibly introducing unreliability in its data and not measuring service quality.

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cite: Rendall2013
author: Rendall, M.
year: 2013
title: "Structural change in developing countries: Has it decreased gender inequality?"
publisher: World Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.005
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Brazil; Mexico; India; Thailand
period: 1987-2008
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: women
data: WB Household Survey; IPUMS USA/International/CPS
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS; Mincer wage regression; Wellington wage gap decomposition; comparative average factor deviations
sample: 200_000
unit: individual
representativeness: national, census
causal: # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: capital displacing production brawn (Galor & Weil 1996)
limitations:
observation:
- intervention: trade liberalization (structural changes)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: female employment shares
findings: all countries decreased brawn requirements (smallest change in India, 0.2ppts; largest in Thailand 15ppts); decreased labour market gender inequality in Brazil; largest steady LM inequality in India; mixed results for Mexico and Thailand
channels: reduced requirement for physical labour (switching 'brawn' to 'brain'); switching to e.g. service-oriented labour
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: trade liberalization (structural changes)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: female wage shares
findings: Brazil closed wage gap the fastest, though widened more recently; Thailand/India mixed results
channels: reduced returns on brain intensive occupations in Brazil; different LM skill structure in Thailand/India, context dependency of structural changes
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A cross-country analysis on the impacts of structural changes in Brazil, Mexico, Thailand and India from 1987 to 2008, and its effects on female labour market participation and the gender wage gap.
Basing its analysis on the theory of capital displacing brawn in production for transition economies, it finds that all countries had reduced brawn requirements over time, though with large heterogeneity: Thailand lead the change with 15 percentage points while India had the smallest change with 0.2 percentage points.
Following this, there was the largest steady labour market participation inequality in India, while there were mixed results for Mexico and Thailand, with Brazil having female employment shares changes similar to that of the United States.
The channels here are seen as a reduced requirement for physical labour replaced by for example more service-oriented economies ('brawn' to 'brain').
For female wage shares, in Brazil the wage gap closed most rapidly, though it began widening in 2005, while Thailand and India had converging but mixed changes.
In Mexico, while the gap widened during the 1990s, it began closing again afterwards.
The differences in wage gap effects compared to both other countries and the respective country's physical labour market requirements show that contextual structural changes played a large role in each case:
with erstwhile reduced returns on Brazilian returns for brain intensive occupations, the introduction of a female-lead manufacturing sector in Mexico in the 90s, and widely diverging basic labour market skill structures in Thailand and India necessitating subsistence-oriented participation; the results show impacts of structural changes, though limited through a variety of mediating factors influencing each case.

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cite: Rosen2014
author: Rosen, M. I., Ablondi, K., Black, A. C., Mueller, L., Serowik, K. L., Martino, S., Mobo, B. H., & Rosenheck, R. A.
year: 2014
title: "Work outcomes after benefits counseling among veterans applying for service connection for a psychiatric condition"
publisher: Psychiatric Services
uri: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201300478
pubtype: article
discipline: health
country: United States
period: 2008-2011
maxlength: 6
targeting: explicit
group: disabled
data: baseline, 3 follow-up surveys; timeline follow-back calendar
design: experimental
method: RCT
sample: 84
unit: individual
representativeness: local
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: can not locate active ingredient
observation:
- intervention: counseling (benefits counseling)
institutional: 0
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: disability; age
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: hours worked (rtw)
findings: counseling had significant increas on more waged days worked; on average 3 additional days worked in 28 days preceding measurement
channels: not clear, neither belief about work, benefits, nor mental health/substance abuse service use increased significantly
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
An experimental study on the impacts of benefits and vocational counseling for disabled veterans in the United States, measuring effects on the return to work through average hours worked.
It identifies time worked through a timeline follow-back calendar, measuring the change in days worked in the 28 days preceding the final study measurement.
Here, it finds the sessions having a significant increase on more waged days worked, with an additional three days for the 28 preceding days on average.
One limitation is the inability of the study to locate an active ingredient:
Though the intervention clearly aims at strengthening some aspect of individual agency, the exact mediators are not clear, with neither beliefs about work, beliefs about benefits, nor provided service use for mental health or substance abuse impacted significantly.

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cite: Shepherd-Banigan2021
author: Shepherd-Banigan, M., Pogoda, T. K., McKenna, K., Sperber, N., & Van Houtven, C. H.
year: 2021
title: "Experiences of VA vocational and education training and assistance services: Facilitators and barriers reported by veterans with disabilities"
publisher: In Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal
uri: https://doi.org/10.1037/prj0000437
pubtype: article
discipline: psychology
country: United States
period: 2018
maxlength:
targeting: explicit
group: disabled
data: interviews
design: qualitative
method: semi-structured interviews
sample: 26
unit: individual
representativeness: local
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: sample restricted to veterans with caregiver; data provide little evidence for supported employment efficacy
observation:
- intervention: training
institutional: 0
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: age; disability
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (rtw)
findings: vocational and educational services help strengthen individual agency and motivation; potential disability payment loss may impede skills development efforts
channels: primary barriers health problems, programmes not accomodating disabled veteran student needs; primary facilitator financial assistance for education and individual motivation
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A qualitative study on the significance of vocational and educational training provided for disabled veterans in the United States.
It finds that both the vocational and educational services help strengthen individual agency, autonomy and motivation but impacts can be dampened if the potential for disability payment loss due to the potential for job acquisition impedes skill development efforts.
The primary barriers of return to work efforts identified are an individual's health problems as well as various programmes not acommodating the needs of disabled veteran students,
while the primary Facilitators identified are financial assistance provided for education as well as strengthened individual agency through motivation.
Some limitations include a possible bias of accommodations required through the sample being restricted to veterans with a caregiver, which often signals more substantial impairments than for a larger training-participatory sample, as well as the data not being able to identify the impact of supported employment.

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cite: Shin2006
author: Shin, J., & Moon, S.
year: 2006
title: "Fertility, relative wages, and labor market decisions: A case of female teachers"
publisher: Economics of Education Review
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.06.004
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: United States
period: 1968-1988
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: female teachers
data: National Longitudinal Survey of the Young Women
design: quasi-experimental
method: fixed effects panel regressions; panel probit estimation
sample: 2712
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: looks at strictly female sample, can not account for changes relative to men
observation:
- intervention: education; regulation (relative wage-setting)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment (FLFP rate)
findings: higher relative wages significantly increase FLFP for female teachers; presence of new-born baby significantly decreases FLFP, significantly more than non-teachers; does not have effect on teacher/non-teacher selection
channels: most relevant determinant for FLFP as teacher is college major in education; education level significant determinant; higher baby-exit effect may be due to relatively temporary lower wage loss for teachers
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of providing relatively higher wages for teachers, as well as fertility differences, on labour market participation of young female teachers.
It finds that providing relatively higher wages for teaching professions as compared to non-teaching professions significantly increases female labour force participation for teachers, though the strongest determinant for it is possessing a college major in education, with overall education level being another determinant.
The study also looks at the effects of the presence of a new-born baby and finds that it significantly decreases female labour force participation and is almost twice as large for women in the teaching profession as compared to non-teaching jobs, though it does not have an effect on the choice of job between teaching or non-teaching.
The authors suggest this relatively higher exit from the labour market for women with new-born babies in teaching professions may once again be due to low wages: teachers leaving the labour market experience relatively lower temporary wage losses than in other professions, decreasing the exit-cost.
A limitation of the study is its restricted focus on strictly female underlying panel data which does not allow for comparisons between genders within or across professions.

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cite: SilveiraNeto2011
author: Silveira Neto, R. D. M., & Azzoni, C. R.
year: 2011
title: Non-spatial government policies and regional income inequality in brazil
publisher: Regional Studies
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400903241485
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Brazil
period: 1995-2005
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: poor
data: national administrative survey 'Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicılio' (PNAD)
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS, beta convergence test
sample: 27
unit: region
representativeness: national, census
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: limited underlying data only allows estimation of Bolsa impact at endline; minimum wage had to be estimated from minimum-wage equal job incomes
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage; direct transfers (cash)
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: spatial; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: incomes have converged between regions after introduction of cash transfer and minimum wage with both accounting for 26.2% of effect; minimum wage contributed 16.6% to overall Gini reduction, transfers 9.6%
channels: quasi-regional effects through predominant transfers to poorer regions
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the impacts of minimum wage and direct cash transfers in Brazil on the country's income inequality but especially the way the policies interact with spatial inequalities.
It finds that incomes between regions have converged during the time frame and overall the cash transfers under the 'Bolsa Familia' programme and minimum wage were accounting for 26.2% of the effect.
Minimum wage contributed 16.6% of the effect to overall Gini reduction between the regions while cash transfers accounted for 9.6% of the effect.
The authors argue that this highlights the way even non-spatial policies can have a positive (or, with worse targeting or selection, negative) influence on spatial inequalities,
as transfers occuring predominantly to poorer regions and minimum wages having larger impacts in those regions created quasi-regional effects without being explictly adressed in the policies.
Some limitations include limited underlying data only making it possible to estimate the cash transfer impacts for the analysis endline,
and minimum wage effects having to be constructed from the effects wages equal to minimum-wage.

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cite: Sotomayor2021
author: Sotomayor, Orlando J.
year: 2021
title: Can the minimum wage reduce poverty and inequality in the developing world? Evidence from Brazil
publisher: World Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105182
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: Brazil
period: 1995-2015
maxlength: 12
targeting: implicit
group: workers
data: national administrative surveys Monthly Employment survey (PME)
design: quasi-experimental
method: difference-in-difference estimator
sample: 40000
unit: household
representativeness: national, census
causal: 1
theory:
limitations: survey data limited to per dwelling, can not account for inhabitants moving
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0
indicator: 0
measures: poverty
findings: within three months of minimum wage increases poverty declined by 2.8%
channels:
direction: -1
significance: 2
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0
indicator: 1
measures: Gini coeff
findings: inequality declined by 2.4%; decreasing impact over time; diminishing returns when minimum is high relative to median earnings
channels: unemployment costs (job losses) overwhelmed by benefits (higher wages); but inelastic relationship of increase and changes in poverty
direction: -1
significance: 2
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the impact of subsequent minimum wage floor introductions on poverty and income inequality in Brazil.
It finds that in the short-term (3 months) wage floor increases reduced poverty by 2.8% and reduced income inequality by 2.4%.
Over the longer-term these impacts decrease, and the minimum wage increases only show diminishing returns when the legal minimum is already high in relation to median earnings.
It suggests that additional unemployment costs, created through new job losses through the introduction, are offset by the increased benefits --- the higher wages for workers.
The authors also suggest an inelastic relationship between increases and poverty incidence.
One limitation of the study is the limit of tracking individuals in the underlying data which can not account for people moving household to new locations.
The data can only track individual dwellings --- instead of the households and inhabitants within --- and thus resembles repeated cross-sectional data more than actual panel data.

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cite: Standing2015
author: Standing, G.
year: 2015
title: "Why Basic Income’s Emancipatory Value Exceeds Its Monetary Value"
publisher: Basic Income Studies
uri: https://doi.org/10.1515/bis-2015-0021
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: India
period: 2010-2013
maxlength: 18
targeting: implicit
group: low-income households
data: baseline & 3 follow-up surveys and censuses; structured interviews
design: experimental
method: rural RCT, randomization at village level; 18/12 months of ubi provision with follow up surveys and interviews
sample: 1665
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, rural
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: Lauderdale paradox (money, if scarce becomes even more valuable resource)
limitations:
observation:
- intervention: ubi
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: income; ethnicity
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: debt
findings: ubi significantly decreases debts; results go beyond direct monetary value; households did not have to work for lenders/to pay off debt
channels: directly enables debt reduction; reduces debt-dependency risks; avoids taking on new debt; enables choosing less exploitative forms of borrowing
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: ubi
institutional: 1
structural: 0
agency: 1
inequality: income; ethnicity
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: saving
findings: ubi significantly increases savings; allowed increasing economic security/empowerment of households
channels: shift to institutionalized saving strengthening shock resilience; schooling of the household head, landholding, caste and household size also affect savings
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: ubi paid in addition to any other state transfers; included in sample for effects on work choice (forced to work for debtors, free to pursue own-work)
annotation: |
An experimental study on the effects of providing UBI for villages in India on absolute low-income household debts, utilizing a combination of qualitative and quantitative experimental research.
It finds that the provision of UBI significantly reduced household debts, finding generally agreeing with assumptions in the literature, but goes beyond this by investigating the qualitative causes going beyond purely monetary value into what the authors call 'emancipatory value'.
They find UBI reduces dependency risk - primarily to lenders with high associated fees by allowing the repayment of existing debt, not having to work for the lender directly or by providing them parts of their wages, avoiding taking on new debts and, if new debts have to be taken on, allows choosing less exploitative forms of borrowing (such as from relatives or friends).
The last channel especially is a point of interest of the study: the intervention did not just reduce absolute debts through an individual possessing more money, it generally infused more money into the local contexts, reducing its scarcity and allowing others such as neighbors and friends to provide more collective risk spreading in the villages..
The intervention also significantly increased possibility of saving in treatment households, allowing for an increased economic security and empowerment, which was also influenced by houshold head education, landholding, the household's caste and size.
The main channel this is accomplished through is a shift to institutionalized saving, with provides increased resilience against shock events.

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cite: Stock2021
author: Stock, R. (2021).
year: 2021
title: "Bright as night: Illuminating the antinomies of `gender positive’ solar development"
publisher: World Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105196
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: India
period: 2018
maxlength: 1
targeting: implicit
group: women
data: baseline survey, interviews
design: observational
method: quantitative survey and in-depth interviews; discourse analysis
sample: 200
unit: household
representativeness: subnational, rural
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: authoritative knowledge power framework (Laclau&Mouffe)
limitations: no causal research
observation:
- intervention: infrastructure
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: gender; income; spatial
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: insignificant increased employment probability; advantaged women predominantly belong to dominant castes
channels: project capture by village female elites; women of disadvantaged castes further excluded from training and work opportunities
direction: 1 # 0 neg / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
An observational study looking at the inclusionary or exclusionary effects of the infrastructure development of a solar park in India which specifically aims to work towards micro-scale equality through regional upliftment.
The project included a training and temporary employment to local unskilled/semi-skilled labor.
It finds that the development instead impacted equality negatively, creating socio-economic exclusion and disproportionately negatively affected women of lower castes.
While acquiring basic additional skills, none of the women participating in training remained connected to the operators of the solar park and none were hired.
An insignificant amount of women from local villages were working at the solar park, of which most belonged to the the dominant caste, and the redistributive potential was stymied through capture by village female elites.
The author suggests this is an example of institutional design neglecting individual agency and structural power relations, especially intersectional inequalities between gender and caste.
The study is limited in explanatory power through its observational design, not being able to make causal inferences.

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cite: Suh2017
author: Suh, M.-G.
year: 2017
title: "Determinants of female labor force participation in south korea: Tracing out the U-shaped curve by economic growth"
publisher: Social Indicators Research
uri: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1245-1
pubtype: article
discipline: sociology
country: Korea, Rep.
period: 1980-2014
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: married women
data: Statistical Database in Statistical Information Service Korea 2015
design: quasi-experimental
method: OLS regression; log-linear analysis; contingency analysis with cross-tab statistics; Gini coeff as income inequality indicator
sample: 35
unit: case
representativeness: national, census
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations:
observation:
- intervention: education
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; generational; gender
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: education significant increase in married women's employment; female labour force participation negative correlation with income inequality; female education also positively affects daughters' education level
channels: education being necessary not sufficient condition, also influenced by family size and structure
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of structural changes on married women's employment in South Korea, looking specifically at the impact of education and family structure.
It finds that educational interventions significantly increase the employment probability of married women, and it finds overall female labour force participation showing a negative correlation with income inequality.
However, education alone is only a necessary not a sufficient condition for increased employment, with a married woman's family size and family structure having an impact as well.
Finally, education also has an intergenerational impact, with the female education also positively relating to daughters' education levels.

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cite: Thoresen2021
author: Thoresen, S. H., Cocks, E., & Parsons, R.
year: 2021
title: Three year longitudinal study of graduate employment outcomes for Australian apprentices and trainees with and without disabilities
publisher: International journal of disability development and education
uri: https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2019.1699648
pubtype: article
discipline: education
country: Australia
period: 2011-204
maxlength: 36
targeting: explicit
group: disabled
data: experimental survey
design: quasi-experimental
method: quantitative survey (n=489); qualitative semi-structured face-to-face interviews (n=30); annual postal survey, baseline and 2 follow-ups; generalised estimating equation GEE
sample: 489
unit: individual
representativeness: local
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: non-representative sample, over-representation of learning disability; limited generalisability through sample LFP bias and attrition bias; small control sample size
observation:
- intervention: training
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: disability; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: hours worked
findings: slightly lower for disabled group initially, increase to no significant difference with non-disabled group at last survey
channels: significant but small overall increase (3.1 hours to 1 hour difference); fluctuations for non-disability group
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: training
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 1
inequality: disability; income
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: hourly/weekly income
findings: wages of disability group substantially lower than non-disability; increases to be non-significant over time; lower for female and disability-pension recipient groups
channels: strong initial diff means disability group potentially more often initially employed at junior rates or skewed through attrition bias
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: Disaggregated results for female participants overall more unequal
annotation: |
An experimental survey combined with qualitative interviews for participants of a vocational training programme in Australia, looking at the effects on participants' hours worked and incomes.
It finds, foremost, that initially both the hours worked and the income of people with disabilities are lower on the Australian labour market in general and this reflects in the results for the disability group of participants, which have significantly lower weekly incomes and hours worked than the control group.
Over time, hours worked increase for the disability group to no longer be significantly different but still lower than for the control group (from 3.1 hours to 1 hour difference per week),
however there are large fluctuations in the control group.
Similarly, the wages of the disability group are initially substantially lower than of the control group,
which increases to be non-significant though still lower over time, more so for the earnings of female participants and participants which received a disability pension.
Relevant limitations of the study include the use of a non-representative sample for the national representativeness,
and the overall generalisability being low due to an increased labour force participation bias and attrition bias of the surveys,
as well as only having access to a small control sample size.
Thus, findings should be understood as guiding policy directions, while generalisations should be done with care as some of the larger changes may be due to those limitations,
such as the increased survey response of those with positive wage outcomes.

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cite: Wang2016
author: Wang, J., & Van Vliet, O.
year: 2016
title: "Social Assistance and Minimum Income Benefits: Benefit Levels, Replacement Rates and Policies Across 26 Oecd Countries, 1990-2009"
publisher: European Journal of Social Security
uri: https://doi.org/10.1177/138826271601800401
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: global
period: 1990-2009
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: low-income
data: World Bank CPI indicators & Penn World Table; Social Assistance and Minimum Income Protection Dataset (Nelson, 2013)
design: observational
method: cross-country comparative analysis
sample: 26
unit: country
representativeness: regional
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: some effects may stem from exchange rate/PPP changes instead
observation:
- intervention: direct transfers (social assistance)
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: real wage; replacement rate
findings: real benefit levels increased in most countries, benefit levels increasing more than consumer prices; income replacement rates mixed outcomes with decreases in some countries where real benefit levels increased
channels: bulk of increases comes from deliberate policy changes; but benefit levels not linked to wages and policy changes not taking into account changes in wages
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes: due to data availability indicator for real minimum benefits and replacement rates could be constructed for 26 OECD countries
annotation: |
An observational study on the levels of social assistance benefits and wages in a national comparative study within 26 OECD countries.
It finds that real minimum income benefit levels generally increased in most countries from 1990 to 2009, with only a few countries, mostly in Eastern European welfare states, showing decreases during the time frame.
The majority of changes in real benefit levels are from deliberate policy changes and the study calculates them by a comparison of the changes in benefit levels to the changes in consumer prices.
Secondly, it finds that changes for income replacement rates are more mixed, with rates decreasing even in some countries which have increasing real benefits levels.
The study suggests this is because benefit levels are in most cases not linked to wages and policy changes also do not take changes in wages into account resulting in diverging benefit levels and wages, which may lead to exacerbating inequality gaps between income groups.

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cite: Wang2020
author: Wang, C., Deng, M., & Deng, J.
year: 2020
title: Factor reallocation and structural transformation implications of grain subsidies in China
publisher: Journal of Asian Economics
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2020.101248
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: China
period: 2007-2016
maxlength: 108
targeting: implicit
group: rural workers
data: TERMCN-Land database; Chinese Input-Output Table 2007
design: simulation
method: historical and TERMCN-Land structural simulation model
sample:
unit: sector
representativeness:
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: aggregate national employment exogenous to model; strong correlation to Chinese economic characteristics makes generalisability difficult
observation:
- intervention: subsidy (firm-level)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; spatial
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: income ratio
findings: the rural-urban income inequality is exacerbated if grain subsidies are removed; over the long term this increase attenuates but income ratio remains decreased for rural labour
channels: displacement of rural unskilled labour; unskilled labour supply increase, labour difficult to absorb into manufacturing/service sectors; low income/price elasticity for agr. products lower rural income
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A simulation on the effects of ending subsidies for the agricultural grain sectors in China, analysing among others the effects on rural-urban income inequality.
The study finds that while it would over time boost the industrial economic structural transformations, rural-urban income inequality is indeed exacerbated if grain subsidies are to be removed, especially in the short term.
Over the longer term the real wage decreases of rural workers would attenuate, indicating that the rural income ratio would increase but fail to completely close the gap.
The authors suggest this is on the one hand due to the displacement of rural unskilled labour, leading to an increase of unskilled labour supply which is difficult to absorb into the manufacturing or service sectors,
while on the other hand the low income and price elasticity of agricultural products drives down overall rural incomes.
Thus, the authors uncover a trade-off between national economic output over the long term which they identify as adversely affected by the subsidies,
and the rural-urban income ratios which the subsidies help decrease, though with decreasing contributions over time.
Some limitations of the study include the necessity to assume static national employment and, more importantly,
a limited generalisability due to simulating the specific Chinese structural economic characteristics in the resulting model.

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cite: Whitworth2021
author: Whitworth, A.
year: 2021
title: "Spatial creaming and parking?: The case of the UK work programme"
publisher: Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy
uri: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12061-020-09349-0
pubtype: article
discipline: economics
country: United Kingdom
period: 2011-2017
maxlength: 72
targeting: implicit
group: unemployed
data: Department for Work and Pensions Work Programme statistics
design: observational
method: three-stage linear model
sample: 1494
unit: individual
representativeness: national
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory: social creaming & parking (used spatially)
limitations: no causal inferrence attempted
observation:
- intervention: work programme
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: spatial
type: 1 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: employment
findings: already deprived areas experience further deprivation
channels: providers de-prioritize job-weak areas (spatial parking)
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
An analysis of the spatial consequences of a UK work programme on spatial factors of job deprivation or opportunity increases.
The programme follows a quasi-marketized approach of rewarding employment-favourable results of transitions into employment and further sustained months in employment.
The author argues, however, that the non-spatial implementation of the policy leads to spatial outcomes.
Founded on the approach of social 'creaming' and 'parking' and applied to the spatial dimension,
the study shows that already job-deprived areas indeed experience further deprivations under the programme,
while non-deprived areas are correlated with positive impacts, thereby further deteriorating spatial inequality outcomes.
This occurs because of providers in the programme de-prioritizing the already deprived areas ('parking') in favour prioritizing wealthier areas for improved within-programme results.

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cite: Wong2019
author: Wong, S. A.
year: 2019
title: "Minimum wage impacts on wages and hours worked of low-income workers in Ecuador"
publisher: World Development
uri: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.004
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Ecuador
period: 2011-2014
maxlength: 12
targeting: implicit
group: wage workers
data: national employment survey (ENEMDU)
design: quasi-experimental
method: difference-in-difference approach
sample: 1_624_422
unit: individual
representativeness: national, census
causal: 1 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: some small sort-dependency in panel data; can only account for effects in period of economic growth
observation:
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; gender
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: decreased income inequality through significant increase on income of low-wage earners; larger effect for agricultural workers, smaller for women; potentially negative impact on income of high-earners
channels: income-compression effect
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: minimum wage
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income; gender
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 0 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: hours worked
findings: significant effect on hours worked; no significant spillover effect on workers in control group; significant negative impact on female hours worked
channels: possibly decreased intensive margin for female workers; affecting lower income increase of women
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 0 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study looking at the impacts of minimum wage increases in Ecuador specifically on the income and hours worked of low-wage earners.
It finds that, generally, there was a significant increase on the income of low-wage earners and also a significant increase on wage workers hours worked which would reflect positively on a decrease in the country's income inequality.
At the same time, it finds some potential negative effects on the income of high earners, suggesting an income-compression effect as employers freeze or reduce high-earners wages to offset low-earners new floors.
The findings hide internal heterogeneity, however:
For income the effect is largest for agricultural workers while for women the effect is significantly smaller than overall affected workers.
For hours worked there is a significant negative impact on women's hours worked, a fact which may point to a decreased intensive margin for female workers and thus also affect their lower income increases.
Limitations of the study include some sort-dependency in their panel data and only being able to account for effects during a period of economic growth.

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cite: Xu2021
author: Xu, C., Han, M., Dossou, T. A. M., & Bekun, F. V.
year: 2021
title: "Trade openness, FDI, and income inequality: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa"
publisher: African Development Review
uri: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12511
pubtype: article
discipline: development
country: Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cabo‐Verde; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Comoros; Congo; D.R. of the Congo; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea Bissau; Côte d'Ivoire; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria; Rwanda; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; South Africa; Tanzania; Togo; Uganda; Zambia
period: 2000-2015
maxlength:
targeting: implicit
group: workers
data: UNDP income equality; UN Conference on Trade and Veleopment FDI; World Bank WDI; World Bank World Governance Indicators
design: quasi-experimental
method: generalized method of moments
sample: 38
unit: country
representativeness: national, census
causal: 0 # 0 correlation / 1 causal
theory:
limitations: contains a variety of institutional-structural context within region
observation:
- intervention: trade liberalization (FDI)
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: increased income equality through FDI (p < .1)
channels: primarily goes to agriculture which can employ low-skilled labour
direction: -1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 1 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: trade liberalization
institutional: 0
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: significantly decreased income equality through trade liberalization; equally for political stability, corruption, rule of law increase
channels: higher import than export, creating jobs in other countries
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
- intervention: education
institutional: 1
structural: 1
agency: 0
inequality: income
type: 0 # 0 vertical / 1 horizontal
indicator: 1 # 0 absolute / 1 relative
measures: Gini coeff
findings: education significantly decreases income equality in the region
channels: potentially inequal access to education through exclusion (e.g. spatial/gender/financial); differentiated quality of education
direction: 1 # -1 neg / 0 none / 1 pos
significance: 2 # 0 nsg / 1 msg / 2 sg
notes:
annotation: |
A study on the effects of trade liberalization and FDI on income inequality in 38 countries in the Sub-Saharan region.
It finds that increased FDI is negatively correlated with income inequality measured through the Gini coefficient, while trade liberalization is positively correlated with income inequality ---
as are corruption, political stability, rule of law and education, which contradicts a variety of previous studies.
The authors suggest this may be due to the difference in sample and variables used, and the periods under study.
They suggest that FDI may primarily go to the agricultural sector which can employ low-skilled labour and thereby reduce inequalities,
while trade openness in fact creates jobs in other countries through higher import than export rates.
They do not provide clear channels through which education positively correlates with inequality, though some possibilities are an unequal access to education (through excluding factors such as those based on spatial, gender or financial inequalities), as well as a differentiated quality of education.
Limitations of the study are the region-wide level of analysis which may obscure context-dependent mechanisms within the different institutional-structural contexts of the countries and potential hidden unobservables which may bias the results.