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feat(script): Extend gender, migration discussions

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Marty Oehme 2024-01-25 12:58:00 +01:00
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scoping_review.qmd
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@ -1145,6 +1145,15 @@ as well as providing a comparative view of the respective intersection with inco
## Gender inequalities
<!--
findings - channels - policy recc
- persistent discrimination and cultural views (strenghtening female agency, vicious circle of low FLFP and education)
- supply-side effects, esp maternal (family planning; care work)
- organisational disadvantagement in new economy (networking needs, self-promotion, managerial discretions)
TODO include unionisation effects on gender
-->
Due to its persistent characteristics, gender inequality is an often analysed horizontal dimension of workplace inequality in the study sample,
with a variety of studies looking at it predominantly through the lens of female economic empowerment or through gender pay gaps.
@fig-gender-regions shows that there is a somewhat higher output of research into this inequality in both East Asia & the Pacific and Europe & Central Asian regions just ahead of North America,
@ -1191,7 +1200,6 @@ with subsidies often seeking to nourish this approach, and training, and interve
Approaches of paid leave, child care and education agree with the findings of Zeinali et al. [-@Zeinali2021] on the main barriers at the intersection of gender and social identity:
The main barriers limiting women's access to career development resources can be reduced access to mentorship and sponsorship opportunities, as well as a reduced recognition, respect, and impression of value at work for women in leadership positions, with inequalities entrenching these barriers being an increased likelihood for women to take on the 'dual burdens' of professional work and childcare or domestic work, as well as biased views of the effectiveness of men's over women's leadership styles.
```{python}
#| label: tbl-gender-crosstab
#| tbl-cap: Interventions targeting gender inequalities
@ -1204,17 +1212,45 @@ with more studies targeting gender along income dimensions and the income dimens
studies of agency-based interventions approach gender inequalities less through this dimension.
Instead, they tend to rely on employment numbers or representation in absolute terms or as shares for their analyses.
<!-- maternal intersection, children -->
A variety of studies also look at female economic empowerment outcomes through a more generational lens,
focusing on the effects of interventions aimed at maternity support for the mother and/or children ---
childcare programmes, paid leave and maternity benefits.
<!-- gender inequality frameworks/conclusions -->
As @Grotti2016 demonstrate, an increased gender equality does not engender an increase in overall economic inequality.
Using the Theil index, they decompose a method to account for the different mediating effects of employment similarity and earnings similarity between the genders and find that neither correlated with an increased income inequality.
In fact the opposite seems the case, at least in their analysis of developed nations, with increased female employment reducing the economic inequality,
which they see rather generated by a polarisation between high-income and low-income households.
<!-- maternal intersection, children -->
A variety of studies also look at female economic empowerment outcomes through a more generational lens,
focusing on the effects of interventions aimed at maternity support for the mother and/or children ---
childcare programmes, paid leave and maternity benefits.
A reoccurring question is that of the reasons for inequality in female leadership positions, between institutional discrimination, self selection and family life trajectories.
Like @Mun2018 identified for Japan, while a complex interplay of a variety of factors,
the primary channel seems to lie in a combination of the self-selection of women into different individual career plans,
and reproductions of the existing gender divisions when confronted with the household responsibility for care labour.
While focused more on the effects of education itself, @Suh2017 also agreed with this and sees family structure,
alongside education, having a direct impact on labour market participation [see also @Ochsenfeld2012].
These findings of supply-side channels does not imply non-applicability of policy interventions,
but points to a necessity to focus on supporting those causes directly,
through parental leave policies, childcare subsidies and strengthening their return to work effect.
Generally, a reduced cost of child care or expansion of the costs on both parents has been identified to increase mothers' potential to participate in the labour force and pursue further career choices.
On the other hand, currently the presence alone of a new-born child in a household has been identified to strongly negatively correlate with labour force participation,
which can simultaneously foreclose further career choices or advancements.
<!-- organisational structure -->
At the same time, within organisations in the new economy's logic of not being bound to a single employer,
different focal points gain importance: team structures, career maps and networking receive more emphasis,
and often reflect gendered organisational logics.
In a quantitative study, @Williams2012 identify the necessity of maintaining large networks, engage in self-promotion, and supervisory discretion as potentially prominent intra-organisational barriers to workplace gender equality,
suggesting suitable policy efforts to focus on an increased managerial accountability,
inclusive efforts regarding corporate-sponsored events as well as counter-acting more informally driven male-only events,
and the general publication of co-workers salaries and individualised career development plans.
Finally, it is important to reiterate the cross-dimensional nature of such inequalities.
While the changing face of the economy directly affects organisational processes and structural discrimination,
it also has an impact on the work-family relations and thus, ultimately,
the gender inequalities affected on the supply side [@Edgell2012].
These inequalities surface particularly across the intersection of structural disadvantages and should thus provide the foundation for a holistic picture on inequality instead of one closed off between structural economic concerns and family and maternal decision-making.
## Spatial inequalities
Spatial inequalities are less focused within European, Central Asian and North American regions,
@ -1271,6 +1307,8 @@ They find, similarly to the rural-urban divide, that employment plays a signific
They also agree with the potential policy interventions identified to counteract these inequalities:
credit programs, institutional support for childcare, guaranteed minimum income/universal basic income or the provision of living wages, commuting subsidies, and housing mobility programs,
which largely map onto structural or institutional efforts identified by the studies.
On the other hand, @Hunt2004 show that individual measures on their own such as commuting subsidies in this case, while having positive results,
may not provide significantly lasting impact over the long term and thus may need to be undertaken in a more holistic approach, combining multiple policy packages.
Like the study pool shows, many of the highlighted barriers can be mapped onto channels of inequality:
gender inequality's impact, through traditional gender roles and lack of empowerment, a lack of childcare possibilities, or unequal proportions of domestic work;
@ -1350,9 +1388,12 @@ crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "ethnicity").sort_values("ethnicity", ascendi
There is a mixed approach to using income-based indicators of inequality or other markers such as employment.
At the same time, there is a somewhat stronger focus on absolute measures of inequality, such poverty, debt or savings, or hours worked in absolute terms.
Relative indicators have a wider spread with the Gini coefficient, the Theil index, decile ratios or employment rates for sub-samples used.
From an organisational perspective, the focus on structural effects is in agreement with perspectives which highlight the conceptualisation of workplace ethnicity as separate from the majority in many places as a structural power structure [@Samaluk2014].
At the same time in a broader context, job insecurities, both produced by the dis-embeddedness of migrants and the broader contemporary institutional work organisational context speak to the same institutional-structural focus required as is already pursued in the literature [@Landsbergis2014].
With a focus on remittances of temporary migratory work,
@Rosewarne2012 similarly argues for the necessity to allow for greater continuity of employment to counteract while cementing the workers' bounds to their respective home countries,
through circular labour migration being supported by formal embedding in employment contract through contract succession negotiations and shifting the focus to labour rights specifically for the temporary nature of such work.
While some frameworks do put agency-driven necessities to the foreground [see @Siebers2015],
the consensus seems a requirement for structural approaches enabling this agency and their institutional embedding before more agency-driven interventions alone increase their effectiveness [see for structural necessities @Do2020; @Goodburn2020; for institutional contexts see @Clibborn2022].