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feat(script): Update inequality area discussions

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scoping_review.qmd
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@ -1346,15 +1346,16 @@ Similarly, rarely do studies delineate generational outcomes from income, gender
[^education-studies]: For gender inequalities within education paths themselves, see @Stepanenko2021. For possible ways to integrate gender-transformative interventions into professional education, see @Newman2016. For the effects of prior inequalities on taxation preferences, school enrolment and educational choices, see @Gutierrez2009 and @Zamfir2017. For interactions between policies for the knowledge translation of sexual education and their barriers, see @Curran2022.
<!-- frameworks/qualitative discussion -->
<!-- explanatory framework; see data/processed/irrelevant/Eckardt2022 TODO connect with study results above -->
The effects of automation on income inequality are more clearly put into focus by @Eckardt2022 by studying income inequality and under the effects of various kinds of automation and a minimum wage within the economy.
He considers several types of automation, with automation on the extensive margin (automation of more tasks) leading to decreased wage inequality between low-skill and high-skill earners if it results in decreased overall outputs due to wage compression, and vice versa for increased total outputs.
Automation on the intensive margin (increased productivity of automating existing tasks) has ambiguous effects on the employment share of low-skill workers (who are possibly displaced) and a higher minimum wage here decreases the inequality between low-skill wages and higher-skill wages.
However, it may also result in a ripple effect which results in the overall share of income of low-skill workers not increasing, if more machines or high-skill workers displace them.
Then, while the wage differences may decrease, the low-skill workers share of national income is identified as non-increasing and the share of low-skill employment could decrease.
The effects on low-skill income share under a system of minimum wage are thus primarily dependent on the amount of low-skill job displacement, as well as the effects of the minimum wage on overall economic output in the first place.
Ultimately, the author also suggests the institution of low-skill worker training programmes either targeting enhanced productivity for their existing tasks ('deepening skills') or enabling their capability for undertaking tasks previously only assigned to high-skill workers ('expanding skills') which would respectively counteract the negative automation effects on both margins.
Thus, for the current state of the literature on analyses of policy interventions through the lens of inequality reduction within the world of work, there are strong gaps of academic lenses for generational inequalities, age inequalities, educational inequalities and inequalities of non-ethnic migration processes when looking at the quantity of output.
@ -1378,8 +1379,8 @@ TODO include unionisation effects on gender
Due to its persistent characteristics, gender inequality is an often analysed horizontal dimension of workplace inequality in the study sample,
with a variety of studies looking at it predominantly through the lens of female economic empowerment or through gender pay gaps.
@fig-gender-regions shows that there is a somewhat higher output of research into this inequality in both East Asia & the Pacific and Europe & Central Asian regions just ahead of North America,
though the overall sample is relatively balanced between regions.
As @fig-gender-regions shows there is a somewhat higher output of research into this inequality in the Europe and Central Asian region, ahead of East Asia and the Pacific and North America,
with the other regions trailing further behind in output.
```{python}
#| label: fig-gender-regions
@ -1414,14 +1415,11 @@ plt.show()
```
Looking into the prevalence of individual interventions within the gender dimension,
@tbl-gender-crosstab shows that subsidies, notions of unionisation and collective action, education and paid leave received the most attention.
Thus there is a slight leaning towards institutional and structural interventions visible, though the dimension seems to be viewed from angles of strengthening individual agency just as well,
@tbl-gender-crosstab shows that paid leave, subsidies, collective bargaining, and education received the most attention.
Thus there is a slight leaning towards institutional and structural interventions visible,
though the dimension seems to be viewed from angles of strengthening individual agency just as well,
with subsidies often seeking to nourish this approach, and training, and interventions towards financial agency being represented in the interventions.
<!-- gender -->
Approaches of paid leave, child care and education agree with the findings of Zeinali et al. [-@Zeinali2021] on the main barriers at the intersection of gender and social identity:
The main barriers limiting women's access to career development resources can be reduced access to mentorship and sponsorship opportunities, as well as a reduced recognition, respect, and impression of value at work for women in leadership positions, with inequalities entrenching these barriers being an increased likelihood for women to take on the 'dual burdens' of professional work and childcare or domestic work, as well as biased views of the effectiveness of men's over women's leadership styles.
```{python}
#| label: tbl-gender-crosstab
#| tbl-cap: Interventions targeting gender inequalities
@ -1429,6 +1427,10 @@ The main barriers limiting women's access to career development resources can be
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "gender").sort_values("gender", ascending=False)
```
<!-- gender -->
Approaches of paid leave, child care and education agree with the findings of Zeinali et al. [-@Zeinali2021] on the main barriers at the intersection of gender and social identity:
The main barriers limiting women's access to career development resources can be reduced access to mentorship and sponsorship opportunities, as well as a reduced recognition, respect, and impression of value at work for women in leadership positions, with inequalities entrenching these barriers being an increased likelihood for women to take on the 'dual burdens' of professional work and childcare or domestic work, as well as biased views of the effectiveness of men's over women's leadership styles.
Whereas institutional programmes such as minimum wage and structural interventions such as education or the contextual trade liberalization are strongly viewed through the lens of income effects,
with more studies targeting gender along income dimensions and the income dimension on its own,
studies of agency-based interventions approach gender inequalities less through this dimension.
@ -1478,11 +1480,7 @@ Spatial inequalities are less focused within European, Central Asian and North A
as @fig-spatial-regions shows.
Instead, both Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are the primary areas of interest,
with studies especially into Tanzania, India and Pakistan.
The distribution of spatial inequality analyses otherwise is primarily conducted in the contexts of the United States and the United Kingdom.
This may point to the countries' large rural populations or wider inequality gaps between rural and urban populations.
While large rural populations are a sign of a predominantly agrarian economy, widening gaps are argued to be specifically appearing between rural and urban locations in post-industrial societies:
Under modes of financialization, a spatial redistribution of high- and low-income sectors and increasing occupational segregation, rural locations are often left behind economically and require structural-institutional interventions to be rectified [@Crouch2019].
In the European and North American context, the distribution of spatial inequality analyses is primarily conducted in the countries of the United States and the United Kingdom.
```{python}
#| label: fig-spatial-regions
@ -1496,10 +1494,16 @@ plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
```
Interventions affecting spatial inequalities are often viewed through indicators of income,
This spread may point to those countries' large rural populations or wider inequality gaps between rural and urban populations.
While large rural populations are a sign of a predominantly agrarian economy,
widening gaps are argued to be specifically appearing between rural and urban locations in industrial and post-industrial societies:
Under modes of financialization, a spatial redistribution of high- and low-income sectors and increasing occupational segregation,
rural locations are often left behind economically and require structural-institutional interventions to be improved [@Crouch2019].
Interventions affecting spatial inequalities are often also viewed through indicators of income,
as can be seen in @tbl-spatial-crosstab.
The primary intervention aiming at reduction of spatial inequalities is based on infrastructural changes,
which aligns with expectations of the infrastructural rift between urban and rural regions.
which aligns with expectations of the infrastructural schism between urban and rural regions.
```{python}
#| label: tbl-spatial-crosstab
@ -1508,14 +1512,16 @@ which aligns with expectations of the infrastructural rift between urban and rur
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "spatial").sort_values("spatial", ascending=False)
```
Additionally, education interventions target spatial inequalities, with the effects of minimum wage, interventions strengthening financial agency, trade liberalization and training all playing a more marginal role.
Thus, structural interventions are the dominant approach to reducing spatial inequalities, with institutional and agency-driven interventions often not targeting them specifically.
Additionally, education interventions target spatial inequalities, with the effects of minimum wage, work programmes, interventions strengthening financial agency, trade liberalization and training also playing a role.
Thus, structural interventions are the dominant approach to reducing spatial inequalities,
with institutional and agency-driven interventions often less specifically targeted.
This can pose a problem, as even non-spatial policies will almost invariably have spatially divergent effects,
be they positive: as is the case for higher positive income effects on rural households due to unintentional good targeting of minimum wage to lower-income households [@Gilbert2001];
be they positive ---
as is the case for higher positive income effects on rural households due to unintentional good targeting of minimum wage to lower-income households [@Gilbert2001] ---
or negative: as seen in the further exclusion of already disadvantaged women from employment, infrastructure and training opportunities in India under bad targeting and elite capture [@Stock2021].
Policies, even those of an ostensibly non-spatial nature, must thus keep in mind possibly adverse targeting effects if not specifically adjusting for potential impacts on spatial inequalities.
Policies, even those of an ostensibly non-spatial nature, must thus keep in mind possibly adverse targeting effects if not correctly adjusting for potential impacts on spatial inequalities.
Rural communities relying on agricultural economies in particular may be vulnerable to exogenous structural shock events such as climate change, which may thus need to be a focal point for future structural interventions [@Salvati2014].
The measures used to investigate spatial effects of policy interventions follow an even split between relative inequality measured through indicators such as the Gini coefficient or urban-rural employment shares, and absolute measures such as the effects on rural employment.
@ -1538,8 +1544,8 @@ as well as pre-existing inequalities, here defined as the generational persisten
## Disability inequalities
The dimension of disabilities in inequalities remains strictly focused on developed nations,
through analysis of effects on inequality in the world of work in a context of the United States labour market,
The dimension of disabilities in inequalities remains strongly focused on developed nations,
primarily through analysis of effects on inequality in the world of work in a context of the United States labour market,
as can be seen in @fig-disability-regions.
```{python}
@ -1556,7 +1562,8 @@ plt.show()
Few studies approach disability inequalities primarily through the prism of income inequality, with more analyses focusing on other outcome measures as can be seen in @tbl-disability-crosstab.
The interventions targeting such inequalities in the world of work favour an approach to measuring inequalities through employment, by absolute amounts of hours worked, return to work numbers or employment rates instead.
Only when looking at the intersection of disability and gender is income the more utilized indicator, through measuring female income ratios compared to those of males.
Only when looking at the intersection of disability and gender is income the more utilized indicator,
through measuring female income ratios compared to those of males.
```{python}
#| label: tbl-disability-crosstab
@ -1592,9 +1599,9 @@ This constitutes a second gap which should provide stronger focus in empirical w
## Migration & ethnic inequalities
The effects of policy interventions targeting migratory and ethnic inequalities in the world of work are viewed primarily through the regions of North America, Europe, and Central, South and East Asia, and the Pacific,
The effects of policy interventions targeting migratory and ethnic inequalities in the world of work are viewed primarily through the regions of North America, Europe, Central, South and East Asia, and the Pacific,
as can be seen in @fig-ethnicity-regions.
Especially the specifics regarding migration are reviewed in an Asian context, while studies in North America focus predominantly on ethnicity in their analyses,
Especially the specifics regarding migration are reviewed in an Asian context, while studies in North America focus predominantly on aspects of ethnicity in their analyses,
though both dimensions are deeply intertwined and hard to disentangle for most studies.
```{python}
@ -1611,7 +1618,7 @@ plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
```
As seen in @tbl-ethnicity-crosstab, in terms of primary interventions analysed for these dimensions, most focus on structural interventions such as education or infrastructure,
As seen in @tbl-ethnicity-crosstab, in terms of primary interventions analysed for these dimensions, most focus on structural interventions such as education, fiscal policies, or infrastructure,
as well as institutional contexts such as the possibility for collective bargaining and unionisation, or the effects of universal income on the world of work.
```{python}
@ -1632,7 +1639,9 @@ With a focus on remittances of temporary migratory work,
through circular labour migration being supported by formal embedding in employment contract through contract succession negotiations and shifting the focus to labour rights specifically for the temporary nature of such work.
While some frameworks do put agency-driven necessities to the foreground [see @Siebers2015],
the consensus seems a requirement for structural approaches enabling this agency and their institutional embedding before more agency-driven interventions alone increase their effectiveness [see for structural necessities @Do2020; @Goodburn2020; for institutional contexts see @Clibborn2022].
the consensus seems a requirement for structural approaches enabling this agency and their institutional embedding before more agency-driven interventions alone increase their effectiveness.[^structural-frameworks]
[^structural-frameworks]: See for structural necessities @Do2020 and @Goodburn2020. For institutional contexts see @Clibborn2022.
# Conclusion