feat(script): Add shortened agency section
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@ -816,6 +816,133 @@ and their negative reinforcement effects widening existing inequalities of gende
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## Agency factors
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## Agency factors
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{{< portrait >}}
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::: {#tbl-findings-agency}
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```{python}
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# | label: tbl-findings-agency
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from src.model import validity
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from src.model.validity import strength_for # Careful: ruff org imports will remove
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findings_agency = pd.read_csv(f"{g.SUPPLEMENTARY_DATA}/findings-agency.csv")
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fd_df = validity.add_to_findings(findings_agency, df_by_intervention)
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outp = Markdown(
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tabulate(
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fd_df[
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[
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"area of policy",
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"internal_validity",
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"external_validity",
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"findings",
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"channels",
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]
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].fillna(""),
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showindex=False,
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headers=[
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"area of policy",
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"internal strength",
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"external strength",
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"main findings",
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"channels",
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],
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tablefmt="grid",
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)
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)
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del findings_agency, fd_df
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outp # type: ignore[ReportUnusedExpression]
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```
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Note: Each main finding is presented with an internal strength of evidence and an external strength of evidence which describe the combined validities of the evidence base for the respective finding.
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Validities are segmented to a weak (-) evidence base under a validity ranking of `{python} strength_for(r"\+")`,
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evidential (+) from `{python} strength_for(r"\+")` and under `{python} strength_for(r"\++")` and strong evidence base (++) for `{python} strength_for(r"\++")` and above.
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Summary of main findings for agency-based policies
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:::
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{{< landscape >}}
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### Occupational segregation and social exclusion
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@Emigh2018 evaluate the effects of direct state transfers to people in poverty in the post-socialist market transition economies of Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria,
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finding that overall direct transfer levels on their own are, while beneficial against absolute poverty in the short-term,
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often too small to eliminate long-term adverse effects of market transitions.
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The study identified short-term poverty-eliminating effects, consistent with an institutionalist perspective,
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though, also consistent with what the study terms the 'underclass' perspective,
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these benefits providing having no overarching impacts on the deprivations members of disadvantaged groups face.[^emigh-notes]
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While it is missing matching long-term panel data for a solid conclusion the results also suggest little evidence for the neoclassical proposition of welfare dependency being generated.
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[^emigh-notes]: This is especially noteworthy in this context since the study also finds a strong correlation between poverty and socio-demographic characteristics such as low education, larger households and Roma households.
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@Bartha2020 focus on gendered employment inequalities in an observational study on the long-term care policy trajectories of European countries,
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finding that few still fit one of the ideal-type households of male bread-winner, unsupported double-earner, or supported double-earner households.
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No countries fall into the male bread-winner category,
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and only half the countries into either supported double-earner, mostly prevalent in Western Europe and Scandinavia,
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or unsupported double-earner, more prevalent in Southern and Eastern Europe.
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Especially in the latter model women take on more unpaid care work,
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though the prevalence is visible in all models which, the authors' suggest,
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plays an important role in explaining the persistent employment rate gap.[^bartha-notes]
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[^bartha-notes]: With the policies pursued such as pensions, provision of residential/at-home care facilities, regulation and social protection, where female unpaid care work is reducing, the 'familialization' of care work is taken on as cash-for-care work by migrants. While possibly increasing female labour force participation, the study does not find the work sustainable or providing decent work, often remaining poorly regulated, low-paid and reinforcing gender dynamics in migrant communities.
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@Shin2006 specifically focus on the effects of wage-setting or fertility differences for teachers,
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finding that providing relatively higher wages compared to non-teaching processions significantly increases female labour force participation,
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though the strongest predictor remains the possession of an education-focused higher education and higher education in general.
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The presence of a new-born baby also significantly decreases labour force participation, having almost double the effect in teaching professions,
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identifying the low wages minimizing the exit costs as those leaving the labour market experience relatively lower temporary wage losses.[^shin-notes]
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[^shin-notes]: The presence of a new-born baby is not found to have an effect on job choices between teaching and non-teaching, however. The study can not make statements on male teachers due to the data being restricted on female teachers' panel data.
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In a mixed-methods study, @Standing2015 look at the effects of providing UBI for villages in India,
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finding that they generally agree that the intervention significantly reduces household debts,
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but that beyond the monetary benefits it carries 'emancipatory value' increasing economic security and empowerment.
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In a qualitative evaluation the study identifies reduced dependency risks,
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allowing long-term saving, avoidance of new debts, or, if debts have to be incurred, less exploitative forms of borrowing,
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and increasing collective forms of risk taking through reducing the local scarcity of money by infusing it into the community.[^standing-notes]
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[^standing-notes]: The UBI reduces dependency risk primarily to lenders with high associated fees (through allowing repayment of existing debts) and not having to work for the lender directly (or provide part of wages). The decreased scarcity also allows a shift to institutionalized saving and thus increased shock event resilience.
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<!-- childcare subsidy -->
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@Clark2019, in an experimental study providing vouchers for childcare to poor women in urban Kenya,
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find similar positive effects on economic empowerment for married mothers through increased employment probability and hours worked.
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For single mothers, while the study sees a negative effect on hours worked, the incomes remain stable,
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suggesting an pre-intervention increased workload compared to married mothers,
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with the intervention providing the ability to shift to jobs with more regular hours instead.[^clark-notes]
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[^clark-notes]: The shift to more regular hours is made possible through childcare provisions where before they may have been incompatible with personal childcare, though the study is restricted to effects within a period of one year, limiting its long-term conclusions.
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@Hojman2019 see similar results in urban Nicaragua,
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where the provision of free childcare significantly increased employment probability of the mothers,
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reflecting the increased parental agency through reducing care work requirements.
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While these results hold regardless of childcare quality,
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for high-quality care there are also significant positive effects on the human capital of children.[^hojman-note]
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[^hojman-note]: These results reflect the same effects on children's human capital as providing external child-care stimuli in @Dustmann2012.
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### Unconscious bias and discriminatory norms
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<!-- TODO should we include hiring / firing patterns of Mun2018? mat laws -->
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@Al-Mamun2014 examine the impacts of micro-finance programme in urban Malaysia on women's economic empowerment,
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finding that the ability to receive collateral-free credit increased female household decision-making and personal economic security.[^almamun-notes]
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The study identifies the increased access to finance but also the establishment of an increased collective agency for the women in organised meetings and trainings
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though the restriction to group loans can negatively affect outcomes through existing obstacles to collective organisation such as racial and socio-demographic barriers.
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[^almamun-notes]: The intervention's collateral-free disbursements are restricted to low-income urban individuals, though not specifically gendered.
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@Field2019 evaluate a more explicitly gendered experimental intervention granting women increased access to their own financial accounts and training,
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finding that short-term the combination increased female labour force participation and long-term increased the acceptance of women working in affected households and significantly increased female hours worked.[^field-notes]
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The intervention took place on the background of the Indian MGNREGS programme which, though ostensibly mandating gender wage parity,
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often risks discouraging female workers or restricting their agency since earned wages are deposited into a single household account ---
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predominantly owned by the male head of household.[^field-mgnregs]
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The study argues for a newly increased bargaining power through having greater control over one's income ultimately reflecting onto local gender norms themselves.
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[^field-mgnregs]: The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, one of the largest redistribution programmes on the household level in the world, entitling each household to up to 100 days of work per year.
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[^field-notes]: The impacts on increased hours worked were concentrated on households where previously women worked relatively lower amounts and with stronger norms against female work, while less constrained households' impacts dissipated over time.
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# Robustness of evidence
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# Robustness of evidence
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## Output chronology
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## Output chronology
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