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scoping_review.qmd
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@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ This study presents a systematic scoping review of the current literature concer
It attempts to trace the main mechanisms and channels of the interventions employed in the global world of work to reduce its inequalities, It attempts to trace the main mechanisms and channels of the interventions employed in the global world of work to reduce its inequalities,
while simultaneously investigating the methodologies and indicators used in evidence-based research on them to systematically elaborate the current state of the art on inequalities in the world of work. while simultaneously investigating the methodologies and indicators used in evidence-based research on them to systematically elaborate the current state of the art on inequalities in the world of work.
The following section presents a typology of policies that directly or indirectly tackle inequalities in the WoW both within the labour market and outside this domain (e.g. education policy). The following section presents a typology of policies that directly or indirectly tackle inequalities in the world of work both within the labour market and outside this domain (e.g. education policy).
The section also makes an attempt to clearly identify the theoretical mechanisms and channels through which policies are expected to impact inequalities in forms of work and ultimate labour market outcomes. The section also makes an attempt to clearly identify the theoretical mechanisms and channels through which policies are expected to impact inequalities in forms of work and ultimate labour market outcomes.
The ILO has a policy approach to reducing inequalities in the world of work segmented into five major focus areas: The ILO has a policy approach to reducing inequalities in the world of work segmented into five major focus areas:
@ -126,8 +126,8 @@ Each of these areas in turn rests on a variety of more specific emphases which f
The rest of the study is structured as follows: The rest of the study is structured as follows:
Section 2 will introduce the world of work, as well as the ILO's approach to inequalities within it, and provide a variety of other recent approaches to make sense of inequalities in the world of work. Section 2 will introduce the world of work, as well as the ILO's approach to inequalities within it, and provide a variety of other recent approaches to make sense of inequalities in the world of work.
Section 3 will then introduce the method applied in the scoping review of this study, before introducing the initial identified literature as a coherent sample. Section 3 will then introduce the method applied in the scoping review of this study, before introducing the initial identified literature as a coherent sample.
Section 4 will synthesize findings on a variety of intervention found in the literature, organized by general policy area of intervention pursued. Section 4 will synthesize findings on a variety of intervention found in the literature, organized by general policy area of intervention pursued.
Section 5 will then provide a brief discussion on these findings from the perspective of individual inequalities, the interventions found to reduce them, and resulting policy implications, before Section 6 briefly concludes. Section 5 will then provide a brief discussion on these findings from the perspective of individual inequalities, the interventions found to reduce them, and resulting policy implications, before Section 6 briefly concludes.
# The world of work # The world of work
@ -343,7 +343,7 @@ Its purpose, clearly mapping a body of literature on a (broad) topic area, is th
With an increasingly adopted approach in recent years, with rigorous dichotomy of inclusion and exclusion criteria it provides a way of charting the relevance of literature related to its overall body that strives to be free of influencing biases which could affect the skew of the resulting literature sample [@Pham2014]. With an increasingly adopted approach in recent years, with rigorous dichotomy of inclusion and exclusion criteria it provides a way of charting the relevance of literature related to its overall body that strives to be free of influencing biases which could affect the skew of the resulting literature sample [@Pham2014].
<!-- TODO need correct above definitions --> <!-- TODO need correct above definitions -->
The search protocol will be carried out based on the introduced areas of policies as well as the possible combination of definitions and outcomes in the WoW. The search protocol was carried out based on the introduced areas of policies as well as the possible combination of definitions and outcomes in the world of work.
For each dimension of definitions, a cluster containing possible utilized terms will be created, that is for: definitions of work and labour, forms of work, definitions of inequality, forms of vertical and forms of horizontal inequalities, labour market outcomes, and definitions of policy. For each dimension of definitions, a cluster containing possible utilized terms will be created, that is for: definitions of work and labour, forms of work, definitions of inequality, forms of vertical and forms of horizontal inequalities, labour market outcomes, and definitions of policy.
Each of the clusters contains synonymous terms as well as term-adjacent phrase combinations which are in turn used to refine or broaden the search scope to best encapsulate each respective cluster, based on the above definitions. Each of the clusters contains synonymous terms as well as term-adjacent phrase combinations which are in turn used to refine or broaden the search scope to best encapsulate each respective cluster, based on the above definitions.
@ -546,7 +546,7 @@ plt.show()
``` ```
Second, while such a decrease is visible the changes between individual years are more erratic due to strong changes from year to year. Second, while such a decrease is visible the changes between individual years are more erratic due to strong changes from year to year.
This suggests, first, no overall decrease in academic interest in the topic over this period of time, This suggests, first, no overall decrease in academic interest in the topic over this period of time,
and second, no linearly developing concentration or centralization of knowledge output and dissemination, and second, no linearly developing concentration or centralization of knowledge output and dissemination,
though it also throws into question a clear-cut increase of *relevant* output over time. though it also throws into question a clear-cut increase of *relevant* output over time.
@ -593,7 +593,7 @@ by_intervention = None
``` ```
@fig-intervention-types shows the most often analysed interventions for the literature reviewed. @fig-intervention-types shows the most often analysed interventions for the literature reviewed.
Overall, there is a focus on measures of minimum wage and education interventions, Overall, there is a focus on measures of minimum wage and education interventions,
as well as collective action, subsidies, trade liberalization changes and training. as well as collective action, subsidies, trade liberalization changes and training.
This points to a spread capturing both institutional, as well as structural and agency-driven programmes. This points to a spread capturing both institutional, as well as structural and agency-driven programmes.
@ -741,7 +741,7 @@ It also finds significantly positive impacts on the human capital of the childre
This suggests childcare costs being removed through a quasi-subsidy reducing the required childcare time burden on mothers, increasing parental agency and employment choices. This suggests childcare costs being removed through a quasi-subsidy reducing the required childcare time burden on mothers, increasing parental agency and employment choices.
Some limitations to the study include a relatively small overall sample size, as well as employment effects becoming insignificant when the effect is measured on randomization alone (without an additional instrumental variable). Some limitations to the study include a relatively small overall sample size, as well as employment effects becoming insignificant when the effect is measured on randomization alone (without an additional instrumental variable).
### Unionisation & collective action ### Unionisation & collective bargaining
@Alexiou2023 study on the effects of both political orientation of governments' parties and a country's trade unionization on its income inequality. @Alexiou2023 study on the effects of both political orientation of governments' parties and a country's trade unionization on its income inequality.
It finds that, generally, strong unionization is strongly related to decreasing income inequality, most likely through a redistribution of political power through collective mobilization in national contexts of stronger unions. It finds that, generally, strong unionization is strongly related to decreasing income inequality, most likely through a redistribution of political power through collective mobilization in national contexts of stronger unions.
@ -761,18 +761,18 @@ It also finds that collective negotiation practices targeting especially manager
The primary channel for only marginal significance stems from internal heterogeneity in that only the median part of wage distributions is significantly affected by the measures. The primary channel for only marginal significance stems from internal heterogeneity in that only the median part of wage distributions is significantly affected by the measures.
Instead, the authors recommend a stronger mix of policy approaches, also considering the human-capital aspects with for example active labour-market policies targeting it. Instead, the authors recommend a stronger mix of policy approaches, also considering the human-capital aspects with for example active labour-market policies targeting it.
@Dieckhoff2015 undertake a study on the effect of trade unionization in European labour markets, with a specific emphasis on its effects on gender inequalities. @Dieckhoff2015 undertake a study on the effect of trade unionisation in European labour markets, with a specific emphasis on its effects on gender inequalities.
It finds, first of all, that increased unionization is related to the probability of being employed on a standard employment contract for both men and women. It finds, first of all, that increased unionisation is related to the probability of being employed on a standard employment contract for both men and women.
It also finds no evidence that men seem to carry increased benefits from increased unionization, although in combination with temporary contract and family policy re-regulations, men do seem to experience greater benefits than women. It also finds no evidence that men seem to carry increased benefits from increased unionisation, although in combination with temporary contract and family policy re-regulations, men do seem to experience greater benefits than women.
At the same time women's employment under standard contracts does not decrease, such that there is no absolute detrimental effect for either gender. At the same time women's employment under standard contracts does not decrease, such that there is no absolute detrimental effect for either gender.
It does, however, pose the question of the allocation of relative benefits between the genders through unionization efforts. It does, however, pose the question of the allocation of relative benefits between the genders through unionisation efforts.
The study is limited in that, by averaging outcomes across European nations, it can not account for nation-specific labour market contexts or gender disaggregations. The study is limited in that, by averaging outcomes across European nations, it can not account for nation-specific labour market contexts or gender disaggregations.
@Ahumada2023 on the other hand create a study on the effects of unequal distributions of political power on the extent and provision of collective labour rights. @Ahumada2023 on the other hand create a study on the effects of unequal distributions of political power on the extent and provision of collective labour rights.
It is a combination of quantitative global comparison with qualitative case studies for Argentina and Chile. It is a combination of quantitative global comparison with qualitative case studies for Argentina and Chile.
It finds that, for societies in which power is more unequally distributed, collective bargaining possibilities are more limited and weaker. It finds that, for societies in which power is more unequally distributed, collective bargaining possibilities are more limited and weaker.
It suggests that, aside from a less entrenched trade unionization in the country, the primary channel for the its weakening are that existing collective labour rights are often either restricted or disregarded outright. It suggests that, aside from a less entrenched trade unionisation in the country, the primary channel for the its weakening are that existing collective labour rights are often either restricted or disregarded outright.
Employers were restricted in their ability to effectively conduct lobbying, and made more vulnerable to what the authors suggest are 'divide-and-conquer' strategies by government with a strongly entrenched trade unionization, due to being more separate and uncoordinated. Employers were restricted in their ability to effectively conduct lobbying, and made more vulnerable to what the authors suggest are 'divide-and-conquer' strategies by government with a strongly entrenched trade unionisation, due to being more separate and uncoordinated.
A limit is the strong institutional context of the two countries which makes generalizable application of its underlying channels more difficult to the overarching quantitative analysis of inequality outcomes. A limit is the strong institutional context of the two countries which makes generalizable application of its underlying channels more difficult to the overarching quantitative analysis of inequality outcomes.
## Structural ## Structural
@ -960,10 +960,10 @@ Some limitations of the study include its limited generalizability, having a sam
It finds, foremost, that initially both the hours worked and the income of people with disabilities are lower on the Australian labour market in general and this reflects in the results for the disability group of participants, which have significantly lower weekly incomes and hours worked than the control group. It finds, foremost, that initially both the hours worked and the income of people with disabilities are lower on the Australian labour market in general and this reflects in the results for the disability group of participants, which have significantly lower weekly incomes and hours worked than the control group.
Over time, hours worked increase for the disability group to no longer be significantly different but still lower than for the control group (from 3.1 hours to 1 hour difference per week), Over time, hours worked increase for the disability group to no longer be significantly different but still lower than for the control group (from 3.1 hours to 1 hour difference per week),
however there are large fluctuations in the control group. however there are large fluctuations in the control group.
Similarly, the wages of the disability group are initially substantially lower than of the control group, Similarly, the wages of the disability group are initially substantially lower than of the control group,
which increases to be non-significant though still lower over time, more so for the earnings of female participants and participants which received a disability pension. which increases to be non-significant though still lower over time, more so for the earnings of female participants and participants which received a disability pension.
Relevant limitations of the study include the use of a non-representative sample for the national representativeness, Relevant limitations of the study include the use of a non-representative sample for the national representativeness,
and the overall generalisability being low due to an increased labour force participation bias and attrition bias of the surveys, and the overall generalisability being low due to an increased labour force participation bias and attrition bias of the surveys,
as well as only having access to a small control sample size. as well as only having access to a small control sample size.
Thus, findings should be understood as guiding policy directions, while generalisations should be done with care as some of the larger changes may be due to those limitations, Thus, findings should be understood as guiding policy directions, while generalisations should be done with care as some of the larger changes may be due to those limitations,
such as the increased survey response of those with positive wage outcomes. such as the increased survey response of those with positive wage outcomes.
@ -998,7 +998,7 @@ working time reductions significantly decrease aggregate demand through lower in
It also finds that through these channels of changing aggregate demand, the environmental outcomes are oppositional, with work time reduction decreasing and UBI increasing the overall ecological footprint. It also finds that through these channels of changing aggregate demand, the environmental outcomes are oppositional, with work time reduction decreasing and UBI increasing the overall ecological footprint.
One limitation of the study is the modeling assumption that workers will have to accept both lower income and lower consumption levels under a policy of work time reduction through stable labour market entry for the results to hold. One limitation of the study is the modeling assumption that workers will have to accept both lower income and lower consumption levels under a policy of work time reduction through stable labour market entry for the results to hold.
### Microfinance ### Strengthening social inclusion and norms
@Al-Mamun2014 conduct a study on the impacts of an urban micro-finance programme in Malaysia on the economic empowerment of women. @Al-Mamun2014 conduct a study on the impacts of an urban micro-finance programme in Malaysia on the economic empowerment of women.
The programme introduced the ability for low-income urban individuals to receive collateral-free credit. The programme introduced the ability for low-income urban individuals to receive collateral-free credit.
@ -1084,7 +1084,7 @@ Policy interventions undertaken either with the explicit aim of reducing one or
To make further sense of the studies shining a light on such approaches, it makes sense to divide their attention not just by primary approach, but by individual or overlapping inequalities being targeted, as well as the region of their operation. To make further sense of the studies shining a light on such approaches, it makes sense to divide their attention not just by primary approach, but by individual or overlapping inequalities being targeted, as well as the region of their operation.
<!-- TODO have calculation for amount of studies w/ implicit/explicit targeting? --> <!-- TODO have calculation for amount of studies w/ implicit/explicit targeting? -->
As can be seen in @fig-inequality-types which breaks down available studies by targeted inequalities, As can be seen in @fig-inequality-types which breaks down available studies by targeted inequalities,
income inequality is the type of inequality traced in most of the relevant studies. income inequality is the type of inequality traced in most of the relevant studies.
This follows the identified multi-purpose lens income inequality can provide, through which to understand other inequalities --- This follows the identified multi-purpose lens income inequality can provide, through which to understand other inequalities ---
many studies use income measurements and changes in income or income inequality over time as indicators to understand a variety of other inequalities' linkages through. many studies use income measurements and changes in income or income inequality over time as indicators to understand a variety of other inequalities' linkages through.
@ -1117,7 +1117,7 @@ plt.show()
by_inequality = None by_inequality = None
``` ```
With income inequality on its own often describing vertical inequality within a national context, With income inequality on its own often describing vertical inequality within a national context,
the remaining inequalities gathered from the data rather form horizontal lenses to view their contexts through. the remaining inequalities gathered from the data rather form horizontal lenses to view their contexts through.
The second most analysed inequality is that of gender, followed by spatial inequalities, disabilities, generational inequalities, inequalities of migration, education and age. The second most analysed inequality is that of gender, followed by spatial inequalities, disabilities, generational inequalities, inequalities of migration, education and age.
The following sections will dive deeper into each predominant identified inequality, discuss what the main interventions analysed in the literature are and where gaps and limitations lie. The following sections will dive deeper into each predominant identified inequality, discuss what the main interventions analysed in the literature are and where gaps and limitations lie.
@ -1144,7 +1144,7 @@ The effects on low-skill income share under a system of minimum wage are thus pr
Ultimately, the author also suggests the institution of low-skill worker training programmes either targeting enhanced productivity for their existing tasks ('deepening skills') or enabling their capability for undertaking tasks previously only assigned to high-skill workers ('expanding skills') which would respectively counteract the negative automation effects on both margins. Ultimately, the author also suggests the institution of low-skill worker training programmes either targeting enhanced productivity for their existing tasks ('deepening skills') or enabling their capability for undertaking tasks previously only assigned to high-skill workers ('expanding skills') which would respectively counteract the negative automation effects on both margins.
Thus, for the current state of the literature on analyses of policy interventions through the lens of inequality reduction within the world of work, there are strong gaps of academic lenses for generational inequalities, age inequalities, education inequalities and inequalities of non-ethnic migration processes going purely by quantity of output. Thus, for the current state of the literature on analyses of policy interventions through the lens of inequality reduction within the world of work, there are strong gaps of academic lenses for generational inequalities, age inequalities, education inequalities and inequalities of non-ethnic migration processes going purely by quantity of output.
Care should be taken not to overestimate the decisiveness of merely quantified outputs --- Care should be taken not to overestimate the decisiveness of merely quantified outputs ---
multiple studies with strong risk of bias may produce less reliable outcomes than fewer studies with stronger evidence bases --- multiple studies with strong risk of bias may produce less reliable outcomes than fewer studies with stronger evidence bases ---
however, it does provide an overview of the size of evidence base in the first place. however, it does provide an overview of the size of evidence base in the first place.
@ -1153,8 +1153,8 @@ as well as providing a comparative view of the respective intersection with inco
## Gender inequalities ## Gender inequalities
<!-- <!--
findings - channels - policy recc findings - channels - policy recc
- persistent discrimination and cultural views (strenghtening female agency, vicious circle of low FLFP and education) - persistent discrimination and cultural views (strenghtening female agency, vicious circle of low FLFP and education)
- supply-side effects, esp maternal (family planning; care work) - supply-side effects, esp maternal (family planning; care work)
- organisational disadvantagement in new economy (networking needs, self-promotion, managerial discretions) - organisational disadvantagement in new economy (networking needs, self-promotion, managerial discretions)
@ -1164,7 +1164,7 @@ TODO include unionisation effects on gender
Due to its persistent characteristics, gender inequality is an often analysed horizontal dimension of workplace inequality in the study sample, Due to its persistent characteristics, gender inequality is an often analysed horizontal dimension of workplace inequality in the study sample,
with a variety of studies looking at it predominantly through the lens of female economic empowerment or through gender pay gaps. with a variety of studies looking at it predominantly through the lens of female economic empowerment or through gender pay gaps.
@fig-gender-regions shows that there is a somewhat higher output of research into this inequality in both East Asia & the Pacific and Europe & Central Asian regions just ahead of North America, @fig-gender-regions shows that there is a somewhat higher output of research into this inequality in both East Asia & the Pacific and Europe & Central Asian regions just ahead of North America,
though the overall sample is relatively balanced between regions. though the overall sample is relatively balanced between regions.
```{python} ```{python}
@ -1199,7 +1199,7 @@ plt.tight_layout()
plt.show() plt.show()
``` ```
Looking into the prevalence of individual interventions within the gender dimension, Looking into the prevalence of individual interventions within the gender dimension,
@tbl-gender-crosstab shows that subsidies, notions of unionisation and collective action, education and paid leave received the most attention. @tbl-gender-crosstab shows that subsidies, notions of unionisation and collective action, education and paid leave received the most attention.
Thus there is a slight leaning towards institutional and structural interventions visible, though the dimension seems to be viewed from angles of strengthening individual agency just as well, Thus there is a slight leaning towards institutional and structural interventions visible, though the dimension seems to be viewed from angles of strengthening individual agency just as well,
with subsidies often seeking to nourish this approach, and training, and interventions towards financial agency being represented in the interventions. with subsidies often seeking to nourish this approach, and training, and interventions towards financial agency being represented in the interventions.
@ -1231,8 +1231,8 @@ A variety of studies also look at female economic empowerment outcomes through a
focusing on the effects of interventions aimed at maternity support for the mother and/or children --- focusing on the effects of interventions aimed at maternity support for the mother and/or children ---
childcare programmes, paid leave and maternity benefits. childcare programmes, paid leave and maternity benefits.
A reoccurring question is that of the reasons for inequality in female leadership positions, between institutional discrimination, self selection and family life trajectories. A reoccurring question is that of the reasons for inequality in female leadership positions, between institutional discrimination, self selection and family life trajectories.
Like @Mun2018 identified for Japan, while a complex interplay of a variety of factors, Like @Mun2018 identified for Japan, while a complex interplay of a variety of factors,
the primary channel seems to lie in a combination of the self-selection of women into different individual career plans, the primary channel seems to lie in a combination of the self-selection of women into different individual career plans,
and reproductions of the existing gender divisions when confronted with the household responsibility for care labour. and reproductions of the existing gender divisions when confronted with the household responsibility for care labour.
While focused more on the effects of education itself, @Suh2017 also agreed with this and sees family structure, While focused more on the effects of education itself, @Suh2017 also agreed with this and sees family structure,
alongside education, having a direct impact on labour market participation [see also @Ochsenfeld2012]. alongside education, having a direct impact on labour market participation [see also @Ochsenfeld2012].
@ -1253,7 +1253,7 @@ suggesting suitable policy efforts to focus on an increased managerial accountab
inclusive efforts regarding corporate-sponsored events as well as counter-acting more informally driven male-only events, inclusive efforts regarding corporate-sponsored events as well as counter-acting more informally driven male-only events,
and the general publication of co-workers salaries and individualised career development plans. and the general publication of co-workers salaries and individualised career development plans.
Finally, it is important to reiterate the cross-dimensional nature of such inequalities. Finally, it is important to reiterate the cross-dimensional nature of such inequalities.
While the changing face of the economy directly affects organisational processes and structural discrimination, While the changing face of the economy directly affects organisational processes and structural discrimination,
it also has an impact on the work-family relations and thus, ultimately, it also has an impact on the work-family relations and thus, ultimately,
the gender inequalities affected on the supply side [@Edgell2012]. the gender inequalities affected on the supply side [@Edgell2012].
@ -1261,7 +1261,7 @@ These inequalities surface particularly across the intersection of structural di
## Spatial inequalities ## Spatial inequalities
Spatial inequalities are less focused within European, Central Asian and North American regions, Spatial inequalities are less focused within European, Central Asian and North American regions,
as @fig-spatial-regions shows. as @fig-spatial-regions shows.
Instead, both Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are the primary areas of interest, Instead, both Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are the primary areas of interest,
with studies especially into Tanzania, India and Pakistan. with studies especially into Tanzania, India and Pakistan.
@ -1298,7 +1298,7 @@ crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "spatial").sort_values("spatial", ascending=F
Additionally, education interventions target spatial inequalities, with the effects of minimum wage, interventions strengthening financial agency, trade liberalization and training all playing a more marginal role. Additionally, education interventions target spatial inequalities, with the effects of minimum wage, interventions strengthening financial agency, trade liberalization and training all playing a more marginal role.
Thus, structural interventions are the dominant approach to reducing spatial inequalities, with institutional and agency-driven interventions often not targeting them specifically. Thus, structural interventions are the dominant approach to reducing spatial inequalities, with institutional and agency-driven interventions often not targeting them specifically.
This can pose a problem, as even non-spatial policies will almost invariably have spatially divergent effects, This can pose a problem, as even non-spatial policies will almost invariably have spatially divergent effects,
be they positive: as is the case for higher positive income effects on rural households due to unintentional good targeting of minimum wage to lower-income households [@Gilbert2001]; be they positive: as is the case for higher positive income effects on rural households due to unintentional good targeting of minimum wage to lower-income households [@Gilbert2001];
or negative: as seen in the further exclusion of already disadvantaged women from employment, infrastructure and training opportunities in India under bad targeting and elite capture [@Stock2021]. or negative: as seen in the further exclusion of already disadvantaged women from employment, infrastructure and training opportunities in India under bad targeting and elite capture [@Stock2021].
@ -1313,7 +1313,7 @@ however, analyses of spatial inequalities often remain solely focused on spatial
Spatial inequalities move both ways, however, as also shown by @Perez2022 in a multi-disciplinary systematic review of the association between a person's income, their employment and poverty in an urban environment. Spatial inequalities move both ways, however, as also shown by @Perez2022 in a multi-disciplinary systematic review of the association between a person's income, their employment and poverty in an urban environment.
They find, similarly to the rural-urban divide, that employment plays a significant role in the poverty of urban residents, though here the primary barriers are identified as lack of access to public transport, geographical segregation, labour informality and inadequate human capital. They find, similarly to the rural-urban divide, that employment plays a significant role in the poverty of urban residents, though here the primary barriers are identified as lack of access to public transport, geographical segregation, labour informality and inadequate human capital.
They also agree with the potential policy interventions identified to counteract these inequalities: They also agree with the potential policy interventions identified to counteract these inequalities:
credit programs, institutional support for childcare, guaranteed minimum income/universal basic income or the provision of living wages, commuting subsidies, and housing mobility programs, credit programs, institutional support for childcare, guaranteed minimum income/universal basic income or the provision of living wages, commuting subsidies, and housing mobility programs,
which largely map onto structural or institutional efforts identified by the studies. which largely map onto structural or institutional efforts identified by the studies.
On the other hand, @Hunt2004 show that individual measures on their own such as commuting subsidies in this case, while having positive results, On the other hand, @Hunt2004 show that individual measures on their own such as commuting subsidies in this case, while having positive results,
may not provide significantly lasting impact over the long term and thus may need to be undertaken in a more holistic approach, combining multiple policy packages. may not provide significantly lasting impact over the long term and thus may need to be undertaken in a more holistic approach, combining multiple policy packages.
@ -1352,8 +1352,8 @@ Only when looking at the intersection of disability and gender is income the mor
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "disability").sort_values("disability", ascending=False) crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "disability").sort_values("disability", ascending=False)
``` ```
Studies into interventions within the dimension of disabilities are predominantly focused on agency-based perspectives, with counselling and training being the primary approaches. Studies into interventions within the dimension of disabilities are predominantly focused on agency-based perspectives, with counselling and training being the primary approaches.
Structurally approached interventions are also pursued, looking at the overall effects of education, or subsidies in health care, though even here, Structurally approached interventions are also pursued, looking at the overall effects of education, or subsidies in health care, though even here,
the individual effects of activation play a role [@Carstens2018]. the individual effects of activation play a role [@Carstens2018].
The findings for a need toward agency-based interventions reflect in frameworks which put the organizational barriers into focus and simultaneously demand a more inclusive look into (re)integration of people with disabilities into the labour market and within the world of work [@Martin2020]. The findings for a need toward agency-based interventions reflect in frameworks which put the organizational barriers into focus and simultaneously demand a more inclusive look into (re)integration of people with disabilities into the labour market and within the world of work [@Martin2020].
@ -1419,21 +1419,21 @@ focus prevalence on individual inequalities varies widely.
Research into interventions preventing income inequality are still the dominant form of measured outcomes, Research into interventions preventing income inequality are still the dominant form of measured outcomes,
which makes sense for its prevailing usefulness through a variety of indicators and its use to investigate both vertical and horizontal inequalities. which makes sense for its prevailing usefulness through a variety of indicators and its use to investigate both vertical and horizontal inequalities.
However, care should be taken not to over-emphasize the reliance on income inequality outcomes: However, care should be taken not to over-emphasize the reliance on income inequality outcomes:
they can obscure intersections with other inequalities, they can obscure intersections with other inequalities,
or diminish the perceived importance of tackling other inequalities themselves, if not directly measurable through income. or diminish the perceived importance of tackling other inequalities themselves, if not directly measurable through income.
Thus, while interventions attempt to tackle the inequality from a variety of institutional, structural and agency-oriented approaches already, Thus, while interventions attempt to tackle the inequality from a variety of institutional, structural and agency-oriented approaches already,
this could be further enhanced by putting a continuous focus on the closely intertwined intersectional nature of the issue. this could be further enhanced by putting a continuous focus on the closely intertwined intersectional nature of the issue.
Gender inequality is an almost equally considered dimension in the interventions, Gender inequality is an almost equally considered dimension in the interventions,
a reasonable conclusion due to the inequality's global ubiquity and persistence. a reasonable conclusion due to the inequality's global ubiquity and persistence.
Most gender-oriented policy approaches tackle it directly alongside income inequality outcomes, Most gender-oriented policy approaches tackle it directly alongside income inequality outcomes,
especially viewed through gender pay gaps and economic (dis-)empowerment, especially viewed through gender pay gaps and economic (dis-)empowerment,
tackling it from backgrounds of structural or agency-driven interventions. tackling it from backgrounds of structural or agency-driven interventions.
While both approaches seem fruitful in different contexts, few interventions strive to provide a holistic approach which combines the individual-level with macro-impacts, While both approaches seem fruitful in different contexts, few interventions strive to provide a holistic approach which combines the individual-level with macro-impacts,
tackling both institutional-structural issues while driving concerns of agency simultaneously. tackling both institutional-structural issues while driving concerns of agency simultaneously.
Spatial inequalities are primarily viewed through rural-urban divides, Spatial inequalities are primarily viewed through rural-urban divides,
concerning welfare, opportunities and employment probabilities. concerning welfare, opportunities and employment probabilities.
Spatially focused interventions primarily tackle infrastructural issues which should be an effective avenue since most positive interventions are focused on the structural dimension of the inequality. Spatially focused interventions primarily tackle infrastructural issues which should be an effective avenue since most positive interventions are focused on the structural dimension of the inequality.
However, too many interventions, especially focused on reducing income inequalities, However, too many interventions, especially focused on reducing income inequalities,