Add Gini coeff into Vietnam script
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
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-----
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* Economic restructuring and trade liberalization further drives economy towards wage work, service work the manufacturing sectors.
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* Economic restructuring and trade liberalization further drives economy towards wage work, service work, the manufacturing sectors.
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* Structural changes drove poverty down in absolute terms, but leave those in vulnerable positions consistently at-risk of slipping into or worsening existing poverty.
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* Economic inequality in Vietnam intersectional between ethnic minorities, rural populations, regional and gendered dimensions.
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* Ethnic minorities increase in economic inequality, driven by worse returns on assets (human capital and land) and worse access to endowments (land and educational infrastructure).
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@ -30,13 +30,17 @@ On the other hand, Le et al. [-@Le2021] suggest a slight increase in overall inc
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At the same time, the ones most affected by poverty through welfare inequalities stay unaltered, as do largely the primary factors accompanying it:
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There is severe persistent poverty among ethnic minorities in Vietnam [@Baulch2012],
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concomitant with low education and skills, more prevalent dependency on subsistence agriculture, physical and social isolation, specific disadvantages which become linked to ethnic identities and a greater exposure to natural disasters and risks [@Kozel2014].
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The country's overall estimated Gini coefficient fluctuates between 0.42 and 0.44 between the years 2010 and 2018, with the highest inequality in the the Central Highlands in 2016,
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though absolute income may be rising, with the top quintile having 9.2 times the income of the lowest quintile in 2010 and 9.8 times in 2016 [@Le2021].
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Economic inequality and poverty in Vietnam thus underlies an intersectional focus, between ethnic minorities, regional situations, rural-urban divides and gendered lines,
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one which exogenous shocks can rapidly exacerbate as the example of the COVID-19 pandemic has recently shown [@Ebrahim2021].
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<!--
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* estimated Gini coeff, overall income distribution: [@Le2021]
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* fluctuating 0.42-0.44 (2010-2018)
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* highest in Central highlands (2016)
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* absolute income inequality may be rising, top quintile 9.2 times income lowest quintile (2010) to 9.8 times (2016) (Hung 2019)
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-->
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<!-- rural inequality -->
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In the 1990s, as the initial stages of the Doi Moi reform bore fruit with economic growth,
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@ -63,13 +67,16 @@ rural inequality indeed increased over this time.
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Wage income and family business income were the main drivers of overall inequality in 2002 (accounting for over 30% of income but 60% of inequality) and remittances add a small share on top,
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which, while decreased in effect (risen to 42% of total income),
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remain majorly correlated with income distributions and thus income inequality.
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@Bui2019 confirm this with a Gini coefficient of 0.36 to 0.39 between 2008 and 2010 which, decomposed into Theil indices for between rural and urban and within rural sectors show that rural-urban inequalities are smaller and decreasing, while within-rural inequalities are large and increasing.
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Thus, while the study points to both more prevalent and equally distributed labor markets and wage labor opportunities,
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these effects apply to the overall population and not just within-rural inequalities which are driven in large part by ethnicity, education and environmental factors.
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<!--
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* estimated Gini coeff, rural and urban expenditure: [@Bui2019]
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* 0.36-0.39 (2008-2010), 0.36 (2012)
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* Theil rural-urban between: 0.22-0.19 (2008-2012)
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* Theil rural-rural within: 0.74-0.83 (2008-2012)
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-->
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<!-- ethnicity inequality -->
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Ethnic minorities in Vietnam are distinctly over-represented in poverty in addition to often being left behind in the development process, not least due to being extreme representatives of the economic situation of Vietnam's rural population.
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@ -86,9 +93,11 @@ These findings suggest that the primary drivers of rural income inequality are a
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<!-- TODO Find levels of population rural/urban in other sources -->
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In the same vein as the urban-rural divide, Nguyen et al. [-@Nguyen2007] thus argue for structural policy failures which essentially lowered the returns on ethnicity along sectorial dividing lines of education and primary income types.
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<!--
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* estimated Gini coeff: rural ethnicities [@Baulch2012]
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* per capita HH expenditure between Kinh and Hoa majority 0.27 (1993, 2004)
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* per capita HH expenditure within minority groups 0.24 (1993), 0.29 (2004) sg increase
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-->
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<!-- environmental inequality -->
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While the effect of agriculture on inequality outcomes is an equalizing one,
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