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# Research Uganda
* focus on:
* income inequality, based on bottom 40%, Gini coefficient, other inequality measures
* inequality in policy areas of development interventions:
* Uganda inequalities in access to safe drinking water
## Project
The project in Uganda aims to improve access to drinking water of 550,000 people living in the rural district of Isingiro, on the border with Tanzania to the Southwest of the country. The country is expected to benefit refugee camps in the area. Only 37% of inhabitants have access to water, half the average access in rural areas at national level.
## Literature

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### [ ] Jagger2012
* looks at income inequality in Uganda and how income from forests and other wild areas relates to it
* wild areas: fallows, agricultural lands, wetlands, grasslands, shrub land; most important: forests, fallows, agricultural lands
* income from forest and wild products plays important role in reducing income inequality between households
* deforestation, environmental degradation and thus loss of income important implications for rural livelihoods
### [x] Ssewanyana2012
* looks at households in poverty and examines drivers of income inequality
* poverty:
* nearly 10% of households continue to live in persistent or chronic poverty
* significant differences across geographical areas (significantly reduced in Northern/Easter, rural areas)
* clear increase in poverty in Western households (but insignificant)
* absolute terms: people in poverty fell significantly 28.5% (05/06) to 23.9% (09/10)
* rural households make up 94.3% of chronically poor HHs
* transient poverty more common than chronic poverty (25.6% HHs slipped into or out of poverty)
### [ ] Lwanga-Ntale2014
* looks at inequality numbers in Uganda long-term (1992-2013)
* degree of inequality somewhat variable, mostly on increase
* top 10 percentile earned 2.3 times more than bottom 40% (2009)
* poverty line set very low, so existing figures of mask a lot of poverty dynamics and characteristics (and 'extent of deprivation')
* consumption distribution very flat, many households presumed escaped poverty still high level of vulnerability
* structural factors ('drivers') and economic 'maintainers' provide complex mix
* structural and deeply rooted inequalities in basic set-up of Ugandan society, including way of asset distribution and social relation mediation
* creates further exclusion, marginalization, pronounced inequality
* enduring legacy of unequal power relations in gender, ethnicity, language, religion, age, cultural groups, disability status
* 'maintainers' and 'aggravating' factors of inequality are contemporary and dynamic
* persistent poverty not just reflectino of lack of 'sufficient' economic growth
* unequal growth itself is cause for grouting inequality
* responses to inequality need to include more inclusive growth path
* Gini: [604]
* Uganda: 0.36 (92/93), 0.40 (99/00), 0.43 (02/03), 0.41 (05/06), 0.43 (09/10), 0.39 (12/13)
* significant increases in 02/03 and 09/10
* rural: 0.33 (92/93), 0.33 (99/00), 0.36 (02/03), 0.36 (05/06), 0.37 (09/10), 0.35 (12/13)
* urban: 0.40 (92/93), 0.43 (99/00), 0.48 (02/03), 0.43 (05/06), 0.45 (09/10), 0.41 (12/13)
* also contains western and western rural/urban breakdown & quintiles
* 1st quintile: 0.14 (92/93), 0.15 (99/00), 0.14 (02/03), 0.13 (05/06), 0.14 (09/10), 0.14 (12/13)
* 2nd quintile: 0.06 (92/93), 0.07 (99/00), 0.06 (02/03), 0.06 (05/06), 0.06 (09/10), 0.06 (12/13)
* other indicators
* welfare of average rural household 83% of national average
* avg urban household 1.9 times more welfare than rural (09/10), 1.6 (12/13)
* poverty 24.5% (09/10), 20.3% (12/13) - income growth may have been pro-poor with lower income distributions having larger increases
* Central and Western Uganda major drivers for reduced inequality 09->13
* relative mean of expenditure (mean expenditure relative to Uganda average)
### [x] vandeVen2021
* looks at 3 case studies (Isingiro; Tanzania and Ethiopia) to establish living income (US$PPP/Adult Equivalent/day)
* finds that around 3.82 US$ PPP should constitute living income, thus also poverty line to meet basic human rights for a decent living
* current national poverty line set at between 0.94$PPP and 1.07$PPP depending on region, even below international 1.90$PPP [@WorldBank2016]
### [x] Esaku2021
* looks at effects of shadow economy on income inequality (short-/long-run) 1992-2015
* Gini coeff: 43.9 (mean 91-2015); 43.9 (median); 43.0 (min); 44.4 (max)
* results:
* long-term large shadow economy significantly increases income inequality
* people who fail to get into formal economy face fewer livelihood opportunities, using 'shadow economy' as means of survival
### [x] Esaku2021a
* looks at effects of income inequality on shadow economy (short-/long-run) 1991-2017
* increase in income inequality significantly increases size of shadow economy, both short- and long-run
* large subsistence sector creates revenue tax shortfall, undermining government's efforts to attain equitable income distribution in economy and prevent creation of social safety nets for poor
* poor will be forced to operate in informal sector
### [x] Atamanov2022
* looks at Uganda inequality and poverty
* poverty:
* share of people below poverty line fluctuated but at level of 12/13 - ~30% (19/20)
* fluctuations driven largely by rural households: surge in poverty 2012/13 and 16/17 (linked to drought 16/17)
* improvement 19/20 (prior to pandemic, favorable weather cond)
* pandemic pushed both urban and rural residents into poverty
* drivers/patterns remain largely unchanged:
* low-productivity agriculture (prod increase 17 due to weather not production practices)
* slow structural change negatively affected by COVID, many ppl returned to agriculture following job losses/small business closure
* working in agriculture and lack of education strongest predictors of high poverty
* poverty rate in HHs with uneducated heads ~48% (19/20) (17% of all heads); with heads primary education 25.% (also 17% of all)
* education level differences also one of biggest endowment factors accounting for urban-rural consumption gap
* inequality:
* largely unchanged between 12/13-19/20
* shift out of agricultural sector mainly taking place amongst men, older individuals, those with at least some level of formal education, those from more well-off households
* HHs income generation strategies impacted by resilience capabilities as reported frequency of extreme weather shocks increased
* water access
* general access to improved drinking water 87% urban, 74% rural (19/20);
with only small amounts of inequality (75/74 rural poor/nonpoor; 76/90 poor/nonpoor)
* but very little access to improved sanitation 39% urban, 25% urban; 19% rural poor, 29% nonpoor; 22% urban poor, 43% urban nonpoor

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### [ ] Naiga2015
* looks at effects of major policy shift from supply-driven to demand-driven approach in rural water provision (in 1990)
* results:
* rural safe water coverage improved slightly
* operation and maintenance of water sources pose great challenge, impeding long-term access to safe water
* abrupt and top-down imposed policy created competing signals from old and new policies
* lead to uncertainty and ambiguity about responsibilities, rules, incentives
* challenge is not only water provision approach but provision of consistent multi-actor and -level governance structure tying to past institutions and providing long-term motivation for local water users to contribute to water provision
* Isingiro results:
* Uganda: access to improved water source 44% (1990), 60% (2004), 66% (2010)
* Uganda: urban household travels 0.2km, rural 0.8km to source (avg waiting time half an hour)
* Isingiro: average distance to source 1.5km
* Isingiro: only 53% of water sources surveyed were functional
* 24% partly functional (low/intermittent yield)
* 18% non-functional
* blocked drainage channels for some of them leading to possible contamination
* qualitative:
* water generally responsibility of women
* cost of user fees prohibite for some to participate
* technology and ability to repair were expensive and usually far away (spare parts, resulted in delayed repairs)
### [ ] Cooper2016
* looks at vulnerability of rural farmers to climate events
* results:
* wealthier farmers perceive drought as highest risk, poorer farmers extreme heavy rainfall
* generally implemented many anticipatory and livelihood coping responses (54.7%), like food storage, livestock maintenance, planting drought-resistant varieties
* some responses (45.4%) specific to individual climatic events
* had no response to cope with rainfall variability
* environmental degradation additional driver of vulnerability: soil infertility, pests, diseases; economic instability
* farmers with more land, education, access to gov extension, non-farm livelihood, larger households, older age more capacity to buffer shock (through increased assets and entitlements)
* inequality arises due to different abilities to be resilient toward climatic shock events
### [x] Mulogo2018
* looks at access to water, sanitation, hygiene at health care facilities
* 2010, Isingiro had 28% access to safe water
* main supply technologies are public stand posts, protected spring technology, deep boreholes
* rain harvesting tanks, gravity flow schemes, in some cases groundwater-based pubped piped water supply system present
* results:
* of 282 health care facilities, 94% had improved sources (but some no improved source, some no source on the premises)
### [ ] Sempewo2021
* looks at changes in water suuply use (quantity) in Ugandan HHs (due to COVID-19)
* most HHs had increase in water quantity usage
* associated HH characteristics age, sex, education, main occupation of HH head, household size, region of residence
* results can be used for equitable water supply during emergencies
### [ ] Atamanov2022 - see poverty for main part
* water access
* general access to improved drinking water 87% urban, 74% rural (19/20);
with only small amounts of inequality (75/74 rural poor/nonpoor; 76/90 poor/nonpoor)
* but very little access to improved sanitation 39% urban, 25% urban; 19% rural poor, 29% nonpoor; 22% urban poor, 43% urban nonpoor (19/20)

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# Script
<!-- intro/overall -->
Uganda generally has a degree of inequality that fluctuates somewhat but over time seems largely unchanged,
as does the share of people below its poverty line in recent years.
The overall level of welfare inequality in the country had a slight upward trend,
with a Gini coefficient of 0.36 calculated for the 1992/93 census and a World Bank calculation of 0.43 for the year 2019,
with the coefficient rising significantly in the years 2002/03 and 2009/10 during its fluctuation [@Lwanga-Ntale2014; @Atamanov2022].
However, the overall aggregation masks several important distinctions:
Rural inequality on the whole is lower than urban inequality, with Lwanga-Ntale [@Lwanga-Ntale2014] findings coefficients of 0.35 and 0.41 for 2012/13 respectively.
Additionally, he sees quintile inequalities primarily driven by the highest quintile (0.25) with the middle-incomes less affected (0.05-0.07),
however he also finds a significantly higher coefficient for the first quintile (0.14).
These inequality levels remain mostly unchanged from 2012/13 to 2019/20 but hide qualitative dimensions such as the shift out of a lower-income agricultural livelihood predominantly taking place amongst older men who have at least some level of formal education and are from already more well-off households [@Atamanov2022].
<!-- poverty -->
Atamanov et al. [-@Atamanov2022] go on to examine the share of people below the poverty line in Uganda:
around 30% of households are in a state of poverty in 2019/20,
which once again fluctuated but roughly reflects the share of 30.7% households in poverty in 2012/13.
Two surges in rural household poverty in 2012/2013 and 2016/17 can be linked to droughts in the country,
with an improvement in 2019/20 conversely being linked to favorable weather conditions.
<!-- TODO find citation or put Atamanov -->
Ssewanyana and Kasirye [-@Ssewanyana2012] find that in absolute terms poverty fell significantly (from 28.5% in 2005/06 to 23.9% in 2009/10) but there are clear relative regional differences emerging,
with Western Ugandan households increasing in poverty while Northern and Eastern households reduced their share of households below the poverty line.
Additionally they find, while transient poverty is more common than chronic poverty in Uganda,
nearly 10% of households continue to live in persistent or chronic poverty.
Lastly, for a long time it has been seen as an issue that Uganda puts its national poverty line too low with the line being put between 0.94 USD PPP and 1.07 USD PPP depending on the province (lower than the international live of 1.90 USD PPP),
while van de Ven [-@vandeVen2021] estimate a living income of around 3.82 USD PPP would be required for a national poverty line that meets basic human rights for a decent living.
<!-- TODO find a source for the national poverty line being too low (quant data is already in vandeVen2021) -->
<!-- endowment/assets: education, ..? -->
Esaku [-@Esaku2021; -@Esaku2021a] finds a somewhat circular driving relationship between Ugandan inequality, poverty and working in what calls the shadow economy:
inequality increases the size of the informal economy, as a large subsistence sector creates revenue tax shortfalls,
undermines the governments efforts to attain equitable income distributions in the economy and the creation of social safety nets for the poort, who, in turn,
have to turn to the informal economy to secure their livelihoods,
increasing its size both short- and long-term and feeding back into the cycle.
Additionally, slow structural change ---
further impeded by the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, which pushed both urban and rural residents back into poverty ---
leaves a low-productivity agricultural sector which becomes,
in combination with a lack of education, the strongest predictor of poverty:
the poverty rate in households with an uneducated household head (17% of all households) is 48% (2019/20),
while already households with a household head possessing primary education (also 17% of all) nearly cuts this in half with 25% poverty rate (2019/20) [@Atamanov2022].
<!-- water access -->
<!-- TODO introductionary sentence like With Uganda being situated here-and-there it is one of the countries in danger of water scarcity, which would be bad because. -->
In 1990 a policy initiative to shift from a supply-driven to a demand-driven model for rural drinking water provision was enacted which, over time,
improved rural safe water coverage slightly but also made operation and maintenance of improved water sources pose a challenge that could impede long-term access to safe water.
In the country, access to improved water sources rose from 44% in 1990 to 60% in 2004 and 66% in 2010 [@Naiga2015].
In 2019, access to improved sources of drinking water in the country is at a level of 87% in urban areas and 74% in rural areas, with relatively little inequality in rural regions between poor and non-poor households [@Atamanov2022].
Health care facilities in rural areas are generally well connected to improved sources with 94% of facilities having access to public stand posts, protected spring technology, deep boreholes and some to rain harvesting tanks, gravity flow schemes or groundwater-based pumped piped water supplies [@Mulogo2018].
Households, on the other hand are generally less well connected.
<!-- Isingiro province -->
--here goes Naiga2015 Isingiro numbers--
and Mulogo2018 - isingiro?
<!-- water access during extreme events -->
(climate events - Cooper2016 -> increase during emergencies - Sempewo2021)
<!-- conclusion -->