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Marty Oehme 2022-11-25 12:35:00 +01:00
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_drivers-of-inequality-benin.qmd
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@ -48,7 +48,6 @@ with efforts to open up communities to harness the benefits of growth often prim
Using the Learning Poverty index, which combines the share of school deprivation (the share of primary-aged children out-of-school) and learning deprivation (share of pupils below a minimum proficiency in reading),
a @WorldBank2022a report shows that 56% of children at late primary age in Benin are not proficient in reading,
55% do not achieve minimum proficiency levels at the end of primary school and 3% of primary school-aged children are not enrolled in school at all.
<!-- TODO These levels are higher than in Uganda, though, since ... gender dimension? -->
Looking purely at attendance rates, @McNabb2018 finds that the primary household-level determinants of attendance are the wealth of a household, its religion, as well as the education level of its household head.
Here, gender disparities persist, however,
with girls continuously less likely to attend and adopted girls being at the greatest disadvantage,

2
_drivers-of-inequality-uganda.qmd
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@ -42,7 +42,6 @@ around 30% of households are in a state of poverty in 2019/20,
which once again fluctuated but roughly reflects the share of 30.7% households in poverty in 2012/13.
Two surges in rural household poverty in 2012/2013 and 2016/17 can be linked to droughts in the country,
with an improvement in 2019/20 conversely being linked to favorable weather conditions.
<!-- TODO find citation or put Atamanov -->
@Ssewanyana2012 find that in absolute terms poverty fell significantly (from 28.5% in 2005/06 to 23.9% in 2009/10) but there are clear relative regional differences emerging,
with Western Ugandan households increasing in poverty while Northern and Eastern households reduced their share of households below the poverty line.
Additionally, they find that while transient poverty is more common than chronic poverty in Uganda,
@ -90,7 +89,6 @@ and rural households in turn less well than urban households.
<!-- Isingiro district -->
The same study found for the Isingiro district in Western Uganda on the other hand, in 2010,
only 28% of households had access to improved water [@Mulogo2018].
<!-- TODO check validity -->
@Naiga2015 investigated the characteristics of improved water access in the Isingiro district, finding that whereas the national average distance to travel for a water source is 0.2km in urban and 0.8km in rural locations, in Isingiro it is 1.5km,
and of the fewer existing improved water sources, only 53% were fully functional,
with 24% being only partly functional (having only low or intermittent yield) and 18% not being functional at all.

33
_drivers-of-inequality-vietnam.qmd
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@ -46,13 +46,6 @@ gini_plot(gni_cnsmpt)
Source: Author's elaboration based on UNU-WIDER WIID (2022).
:::
<!--
* estimated Gini coeff, overall income distribution: [@Le2021]
* fluctuating 0.42-0.44 (2010-2018)
* highest in Central highlands (2016)
* absolute income inequality may be rising, top quintile 9.2 times income lowest quintile (2010) to 9.8 times (2016) (Hung 2019)
-->
<!-- rural inequality -->
In the 1990s, as the initial stages of the Doi Moi reform bore fruit with economic growth,
the first amplifications of inequalities along new rural-urban boundaries became visible.
@ -88,13 +81,6 @@ while within-rural inequalities are large and increasing.
Thus, while the study points to both more prevalent and equally distributed labor markets and wage labor opportunities,
these effects apply to the overall population and not just within-rural inequalities which are driven in large part by ethnicity, education and environmental factors.
<!--
* estimated Gini coeff, rural and urban expenditure: [@Bui2019]
* 0.36-0.39 (2008-2010), 0.36 (2012)
* Theil rural-urban between: 0.22-0.19 (2008-2012)
* Theil rural-rural within: 0.74-0.83 (2008-2012)
-->
<!-- ethnicity inequality -->
Ethnic minorities in Vietnam are distinctly over-represented in poverty in addition to often being left behind in the development process, not least due to being extreme representatives of the economic situation of Vietnam's rural population.
Ethnic minority households have a tenuous economic position - and it is deteriorating.
@ -111,12 +97,6 @@ These findings suggest that the primary drivers of rural income inequality are a
<!-- TODO Find levels of population rural/urban in other sources -->
In the same vein as the urban-rural divide, Nguyen et al. [-@Nguyen2007] thus argue for structural policy failures which essentially lowered the returns on ethnicity along sectorial dividing lines of education and primary income types.
<!--
* estimated Gini coeff: rural ethnicities [@Baulch2012]
* per capita HH expenditure between Kinh and Hoa majority 0.27 (1993, 2004)
* per capita HH expenditure within minority groups 0.24 (1993), 0.29 (2004) sg increase
-->
### Natural disasters and inequalities
<!-- environmental inequality -->
@ -133,13 +113,6 @@ friends neighbors and market actors instead of agricultural departments or mass
cultural issues such as language do come into play and act as a barrier.
Reactionary economic mitigation efforts by households, such as reduced healthcare spending, selling of land or livestock assets, taking children out of school due to needing assistance at home can in turn lead to longer-term adverse consequences (thus, *mal-adaptation*) [@Kozel2014].
<!--
* estimated Gini coeff: Ninh Binh province [@Kozel2014]
* 0.283 (2013)
* top 90th percentile 3.57 times income 10th percentile
* 13.63 percent in richest quintile
-->
<!-- extreme events / climate change -->
The results are further intensification of inequality along existing social lines during extreme events such as flooding:
The effects of inequalities mainly affecting ethnic minorities are illustrated by Son and Kingsbury [-@Son2020],
@ -177,12 +150,6 @@ Women in rural areas experience worse mobility and fewer economic opportunities
While inequality as an aggregate is kept relatively low Vietnam's growth rate,
both ethnic minorities and the rural female population are thus at risk of being left behind economically.
<!-- ## Script Issues
* Too wordy: on within-sector/between-sector rural dimensions; on non-quantitative environmental dimensions
* Too vague on 2 lowest quintile effects, especially as expressed through Gini impacts
* Wordings do not quite capture quintile poverty assessments for coming descriptive statistics
-->
<!-- development assistance -->
### Development assistance to Vietnam