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Integrate feedback Vietnam

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Marty Oehme 2022-09-02 10:01:53 +02:00
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_drivers-of-inequality-vietnam.qmd
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@ -19,15 +19,15 @@ seen over the bulk of its population, attempting to keep inequality rates manage
Poverty in Vietnam is marked by a drastic reduction in absolute terms over this time with some of the decline directly attributable to the liberalization of markets over the country's growth more generally [@WorldBank2012; @McCaig2011; @Le2022].
While the rate of decline slowed since the mid-2000s [@VASS2006; @VASS2011],
it continued declining in tandem with small income inequality decreases.
The overall income inequality decrease that Vietnam experienced from the early 2000s suggests that its growth has been accompanied by equity extending beyond poverty reduction [@Benjamin2017].
The overall income inequality decrease that Vietnam experienced from the early 2000s suggests that economic growth has been accompanied by equity extending beyond poverty reduction [@Benjamin2017].
On the other hand, Le et al. [-@Le2021] suggest a slight increase in overall income distribution from 2010-2018.
At the same time, the ones most affected by poverty through welfare inequalities stay unaltered, as do largely the primary factors accompanying it:
There is severe persistent poverty among ethnic minorities in Vietnam [@Baulch2012],
At the same time, the population groups most affected by poverty through welfare inequalities stay unaltered, as do largely the primary factors accompanying it:
There is severe poverty persistence among ethnic minorities in Vietnam [@Baulch2012],
concomitant with low education and skills, more prevalent dependency on subsistence agriculture, physical and social isolation, specific disadvantages which become linked to ethnic identities and a greater exposure to natural disasters and risks [@Kozel2014].
The country's overall estimated Gini coefficient for income per capita fluctuates between 0.42 and 0.44 between the years 2010 and 2018, with the highest inequality in the the Central Highlands in 2016,
The country's overall estimated Gini coefficient for income fluctuates between 0.42 and 0.44 between 2010 and 2018, with the highest levels of income inequality observed in the Central Highlands in 2016,
though absolute income may be rising, with the top quintile having 9.2 times the income of the lowest quintile in 2010 and 9.8 times in 2016 [@Le2021].
For Gini coefficients estimated using consumption per capita, see @fig-vnm, which shows similar trends of increasing inequality, with 2010 constituting a significant increase.
Economic inequality and poverty in Vietnam thus underlies an intersectional focus, between ethnic minorities, regional situations, rural-urban divides and gendered lines,
Economic inequality and poverty in Vietnam thus underlies an intersectional focus, between ethnic minorities, regional disparities, rural-urban divides and gendered lines,
one which exogenous shocks can rapidly exacerbate as the example of the COVID-19 pandemic has recently shown [@Ebrahim2021].
```{python}
@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ plot_consumption_gini_percapita_ruralurban(vnm)
<!-- rural inequality -->
In the 1990s, as the initial stages of the Doi Moi reform bore fruit with economic growth,
the first amplifications of inequalities along new rural-urban boundaries became equally visible.
the first amplifications of inequalities along new rural-urban boundaries became visible.
There are two complementary views on the primary dimensions of rural inequalities.
On the one hand, the urban-rural divide may be driven by structural effects:
the welfare returns to education and agricultural activities changed dramatically from,
@ -58,8 +58,9 @@ On the other, Thu Le and Booth [-@ThuLe2014] argue that the urban-rural inequali
The gap between urban and rural sectors grew, a gap which would continue to widen until 2002, when within-sector rural inequalities started to become more important for inequalities than those between the sectors [@Fritzen2005; @ThuLe2014].
In the time of within-sector inequality becoming more pronounced many studies, while important contributions to continued inequality research, had a tendency to mask those inequalities in favor of continued analysis of between-sector trends ---
often to the detriment of the high degree of heterogeneity depending on geographic characteristics such as remoteness or cultural factors, as Cao and Akita [-@Cao2008] note.
In a recent study, Bui and Imai [-@Bui2019] build on the insights of these viewpoints and also find access to basic education the linchpin of improving rural welfare while its lack combined with economic restructuring precluded many from equal opportunities toward human capital improvement.
They found that, as within-sector became more pronounced again after 2010,
In a recent study, Bui and Imai [-@Bui2019] build on this earlier work,
and also find access to basic education the linchpin of improving rural welfare while its lack combined with economic restructuring precluded many from equal opportunities toward human capital improvement.
They find that, as within-sector became more pronounced again after 2010,
the large proportion of uneducated heads of households in rural sectors and low social mobility of rural poor combine to increase within-sector inequality while the economy overall changing toward salaried work compounded within-rural and urban-rural disparities.
Early income studies generally highlighted the important role of agricultural incomes in reducing, or at the very not exacerbating, income inequality [@Benjamin2004].
Benjamin et al. [-@Benjamin2017] expand on this over a longer time-frame by decomposing different household income sources underlying Vietnam's structural economic changes.
@ -85,9 +86,9 @@ these effects apply to the overall population and not just within-rural inequali
Ethnic minorities in Vietnam are distinctly over-represented in poverty in addition to often being left behind in the development process, not least due to being extreme representatives of the economic situation of Vietnam's rural population.
Ethnic minority households have a tenuous economic position - and it is deteriorating.
In earlier studies on ethnic inequalities in Vietnam, a strong welfare gap between ethnic minorities and the majority was already visible.
Van de Walle [-@vandeWalle2001] already views the situation of ethnic minorities inhabiting predominantly remote rural areas with lower living standards than the ethnic majority,
a finding they suggest created due to environmental and structural differences (difficult terrain, poor infrastructure, less access to off-farm work and the market economy and inferior access to education) and compounded by social immobility and social isolation.
Baulch et al. [-@Baulch2012] find that between 1993 and 2004, the welfare gap between the two groups had increased by 14.6%, two-fifths of which were due to endowments such as demographic structure and education while geographic variables make up less than one-fifth.
Van de Walle [-@vandeWalle2001] reports the situation of ethnic minorities inhabiting predominantly remote rural areas with lower living standards than the ethnic majority,
a finding he suggests waws created due to environmental and structural differences (difficult terrain, poor infrastructure, less access to off-farm work and the market economy and inferior access to education) and compounded by social immobility and social isolation.
Baulch et al. [-@Baulch2012] find that between 1993 and 2004, the welfare gap between ethnic minorities and the ethnic majority had increased by 14.6%, two-fifths of which were due to endowments such as demographic structure and education while geographic variables make up less than one-fifth.
They additionally suggest some drivers of the inequality being the lack of ability speaking the Vietnamese language or the distance to a commune or district center amplifying isolating effects, though a large part of the change was linked to temporal changes of unobservable factors -
which the study conjectures to be due to negative ethnic stereotyping, a poor understanding of ethnic customs and culture and further (unobserved) variations in household-level endowments.
While in 2002 the ethnic minority population living in rural areas was below 15%, it rose to over 18% in 2014 - both due to higher fertility among minorities and ethnic majority Kinh urbanizing at a higher rate - and the ratio of Kinh to minority incomes rose to more than 2.0 in 2014 [@Benjamin2017].
@ -102,6 +103,8 @@ In the same vein as the urban-rural divide, Nguyen et al. [-@Nguyen2007] thus ar
* per capita HH expenditure within minority groups 0.24 (1993), 0.29 (2004) sg increase
-->
### Natural disasters and inequalities
<!-- environmental inequality -->
While the effect of agriculture on inequality outcomes is an equalizing one,
its future growth, and that of agricultural livelihoods, is threatened by vulnerability to risks such as natural disasters and environmental degradation, exacerbated through climate change [@Kozel2014].