abstract: 'There is growing body of research and practice assessing transportation

  equity and justice. Commuting is an especially important dimension to

  study since such frequent, non-discretionary travel, can come at the

  expense of time for other activities and therefore negatively impact

  mental health and well-being. An ``extreme commuter `` is a worker who

  has a particularly burdensome commute, and has previously been defined

  based on one-way commute times above 60 or 90 minutes. In this paper, we

  examine the social and geographic inequalities of extreme commuting in

  Canada. We use a 25\% sample of all commuters in Canada in 2016 (n =

  4,543,417) and our analysis consists of descriptive statistics and

  logistic regression models. The average one-way commute time in 2016

  across Canada was 26 minutes, but over 9.7\% of the workforce had

  commute times exceeding 60 mi-nutes. However, this rate of extreme

  commuting was 11.5\% for low-income households, 13.5\% for immigrants,

  and 13.4\% among non-white Canadians, reaching as high as 18.6\% for

  Black Canadians and 14.7\% for Latin American Canadians specifically. We

  find that these inequalities persist even after controlling for

  household factors, commute mode, occupation, and built environment

  characteristics. The persistently significant effects of race in our

  models point to factors like housing and employment discrimination as

  possible contributors to extreme commuting. These results highlight

  commuting disparities at a national scale prior to the COVID-19

  pandemic, and represents clear evidence of structural marginalization

  contributing to racialized inequalities in the critical metric of daily

  commute times seldom recognized by Canadian scholars and planners.'
affiliation: 'Allen, J (Corresponding Author), Univ Toronto, Dept Geog \& Planning,
  Toronto, ON, Canada.

  Allen, Jeff, Univ Toronto, Dept Geog \& Planning, Toronto, ON, Canada.

  Palm, Matthew; Tiznado-Aitken, Ignacio; Farber, Steven, Univ Toronto Scarborough,
  Dept Human Geog, Scarborough, ON, Canada.'
author: Allen, Jeff and Palm, Matthew and Tiznado-Aitken, Ignacio and Farber, Steven
author-email: jeff.allen@utoronto.ca
author_list:
- family: Allen
  given: Jeff
- family: Palm
  given: Matthew
- family: Tiznado-Aitken
  given: Ignacio
- family: Farber
  given: Steven
da: '2023-09-28'
doi: 10.1016/j.tbs.2022.05.005
earlyaccessdate: MAY 2022
eissn: 2214-3688
files: []
issn: 2214-367X
journal: TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIETY
keywords: 'Commuting; Canada; Social inequalities; Extreme commuting; Race;

  Immigration'
keywords-plus: 'TRADE-OFFS; TIME; TRANSPORTATION; SATISFACTION; WORK; PARTICIPATION;

  ACCESSIBILITY; DETERMINANTS; DURATION; DISTANCE'
language: English
month: OCT
number-of-cited-references: '65'
orcid-numbers: 'Palm, Matthew/0000-0002-8800-2777

  Tiznado Aitken, Ignacio/0000-0002-7385-2357'
pages: 42-52
papis_id: 9a3273d0f740772989f64842a0ec379d
ref: Allen2022inequalitiesextreme
researcherid-numbers: 'Tiznado-Aitken, Ignacio/AAL-7641-2020

  Farber, Steven/ABE-6061-2021

  '
times-cited: '2'
title: Inequalities of extreme commuting across Canada
type: article
unique-id: WOS:000809651600001
usage-count-last-180-days: '4'
usage-count-since-2013: '13'
volume: '29'
web-of-science-categories: Transportation
year: '2022'