abstract: 'As the severity of the triple challenges of global inequality, climate

  change and biodiversity loss becomes clearer, governments and

  international development institutions must find effective policy

  instruments to respond. We examine the potential of social assistance

  policies in this context. Social assistance refers to transfers to poor,

  vulnerable and marginalized groups to reduce their vulnerability and

  livelihood risks, and to enhance their rights and status. Substantial

  public funds support social assistance programmes globally.

  Collectively, lower- and middle-income countries spend approximately

  1.5\% of their GDP on social assistance annually. We focus on the

  potential of paid employment schemes to promote effective ecosystem

  stewardship. Available evidence suggests such programmes can offer

  multiple benefits in terms of improvements in local ecosystems and

  natural capital, carbon sequestration and local biodiversity

  conservation. We review evidence from three key case studies: in India

  (the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme),

  Ethiopia (the Productive Safety Nets Programme) and Mexico (the

  Temporary Employment Programme). We conclude that, to realize the

  potential of employment-based social assistance for ecosystem benefits

  it will be necessary to address two challenges: first, the weak design

  and maintenance of local public works outputs in many schemes, and

  second, the concern that social protection schemes may become less

  effective if they are overburdened with additional objectives.

  Overcoming these challenges requires an evolution of institutional

  systems for delivering social assistance to enable a more effective

  combination of social and environmental objectives. This article is part

  of the theme issue `Climate change and ecosystems: threats,

  opportunities and solutions''.'
affiliation: 'Seddon, N (Corresponding Author), Univ Oxford, Dept Zool, Nat Based
  Solut Initiat, Oxford, England.

  Norton, Andrew; Shakya, Clare; Porras, Ina, Int Inst Environm \& Dev, London, England.

  Seddon, Nathalie, Univ Oxford, Dept Zool, Nat Based Solut Initiat, Oxford, England.

  Agrawal, Arun, Univ Michigan, Sch Environm \& Sustainabil, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA.

  Kaur, Nanki, Int Ctr Integrated Mt Dev, Adaptat \& Resilience Bldg, Kathmandu, Nepal.'
article-number: '20190127'
author: Norton, Andrew and Seddon, Nathalie and Agrawal, Arun and Shakya, Clare and
  Kaur, Nanki and Porras, Ina
author-email: nathalie.seddon@zoo.ox.ac.uk
author_list:
- family: Norton
  given: Andrew
- family: Seddon
  given: Nathalie
- family: Agrawal
  given: Arun
- family: Shakya
  given: Clare
- family: Kaur
  given: Nanki
- family: Porras
  given: Ina
da: '2023-09-28'
doi: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0127
eissn: 1471-2970
files: []
issn: 0962-8436
journal: PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY B-BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
keywords: social protection; ecosystem stewardship; climate change
keywords-plus: 'CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMS; SAFETY NET PROGRAM; POVERTY; FOOD; IMPACT;

  INDIA; DEFORESTATION; PROTECTION; MANAGEMENT; COUNTRIES'
language: English
month: MAR 16
number: 1794, SI
number-of-cited-references: '75'
orcid-numbers: 'Agrawal, Arun/0000-0001-6796-2958

  Seddon, Nathalie/0000-0002-1880-6104'
papis_id: 4752fe342e89af35f7afa90d2430a1f1
ref: Norton2020harnessingemployment
researcherid-numbers: 'Agrawal, Arun/A-4257-2009

  '
times-cited: '15'
title: Harnessing employment-based social assistance programmes to scale up nature-based
  climate action
type: article
unique-id: WOS:000509531700019
usage-count-last-180-days: '1'
usage-count-since-2013: '25'
volume: '375'
web-of-science-categories: Biology
year: '2020'