diff --git a/02-data/processed/extracted.csv b/02-data/processed/extracted.csv new file mode 100644 index 0000000..821bbdd --- /dev/null +++ b/02-data/processed/extracted.csv @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +,author,year,title,publisher,uri,pubtype,discipline,country,period,maxlength,targeting,group,data,design,method,sample,unit,representativeness,causal,theory,limitations,observation,notes,intervention,institutional,structural,agency,inequality,type,indicator,measures,findings,channels,direction,significance +0,"Whitworth, A.",2021,Spatial creaming and parking?: The case of the UK work programme,Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy,https://doi.org/10.1007/s12061-020-09349-0,article,economics,United Kingdom,2011-2017,72.0,implicit,unemployed,Department for Work and Pensions Work Programme statistics,observational,three-stage linear model,1494,individual,national,0.0,social creaming & parking (used spatially),no causal inferrence attempted,"[{'intervention': 'work programme', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'already deprived areas experience further deprivation', 'channels': 'providers de-prioritize job-weak areas (spatial parking)', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,work programme,0,1,0,spatial,1.0,0.0,employment,already deprived areas experience further deprivation,providers de-prioritize job-weak areas (spatial parking),-1.0,2.0 +1,"Carstens, C., & Massatti, R.",2018,Predictors of labor force status in a random sample of consumers with serious mental illness,Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research,https://doi.org/10.1007/s11414-018-9597-8,article,health services,United States,2014-2015,1.0,explicit,mentally ill,survey data,observational,multinomial logistic regression model,917,individual,national,0.0,human capital theory; strength-based therapy,"small sample due to low response rate; over-representation of women, older persons, racial minorities","[{'intervention': 'subsidy (health care)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'disability', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment probability', 'findings': 'LFP significantly increased for employment incentives; significantly reduced for employment barriers and Medicaid ABD programme participation; marginally reduced for', 'channels': 'Medicaid ABD generates benefits trap of disability determination', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]","employment motivators captured as increased responsibility and problem-solving, stress management, reduced depression and anxiety; employment barriers",subsidy (health care),1,1,0,disability,1.0,1.0,employment probability,LFP significantly increased for employment incentives; significantly reduced for employment barriers and Medicaid ABD programme participation; marginally reduced for,Medicaid ABD generates benefits trap of disability determination,-1.0,2.0 +2,"Cieplinski, A., D’Alessandro, S., Distefano, T., & Guarnieri, P.",2021,Coupling environmental transition and social prosperity: A scenario-analysis of the Italian case,Structural Change and Economic Dynamics,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.03.007,article,economics,Italy,2010-2014,,implicit,workers,"ISTAT national accounts 2010,2014; EU-KLEMS LM data",simulation,dynamic macrosimulation model,,individual,national,1.0,,models assumption of workers accepting lower income and consumption levels for work time reduction,"[{'intervention': 'regulation (working time reduction)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini; employment rates', 'findings': 'working time reduction policy significantly increases employment; significantly decreases income inequality', 'channels': 'significantly decreases aggregate demand', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'ubi', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini', 'findings': 'decreases income inequality; negative impact on environmental outcomes', 'channels': 'sustains aggregate demand', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,regulation (working time reduction),1,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini; employment rates,working time reduction policy significantly increases employment; significantly decreases income inequality,significantly decreases aggregate demand,-1.0,1.0 +3,"Cieplinski, A., D’Alessandro, S., Distefano, T., & Guarnieri, P.",2021,Coupling environmental transition and social prosperity: A scenario-analysis of the Italian case,Structural Change and Economic Dynamics,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.03.007,article,economics,Italy,2010-2014,,implicit,workers,"ISTAT national accounts 2010,2014; EU-KLEMS LM data",simulation,dynamic macrosimulation model,,individual,national,1.0,,models assumption of workers accepting lower income and consumption levels for work time reduction,"[{'intervention': 'regulation (working time reduction)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini; employment rates', 'findings': 'working time reduction policy significantly increases employment; significantly decreases income inequality', 'channels': 'significantly decreases aggregate demand', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'ubi', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini', 'findings': 'decreases income inequality; negative impact on environmental outcomes', 'channels': 'sustains aggregate demand', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,ubi,1,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini,decreases income inequality; negative impact on environmental outcomes,sustains aggregate demand,-1.0,2.0 +4,"Adam, C., Bevan, D., & Gollin, D.",2018,"Rural-urban linkages, public investment and transport costs: The case of tanzania",World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.08.013,article,development,Tanzania,2001,,explicit,rural workers,"national Tanzania Social Accounting Matrix (SAM, 2001); national administrative survey Integrated Labor Force Survey (2001), Tanzania Agricultural Sample Census (2003)",quasi-experimental,general equilibrium model,7,household,"subnational, rural",1.0,transport cost burden approach,can not account for population change (e.g. pop growth); causality based on model only,"[{'intervention': 'infrastructure', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'real consumption wage differences', 'findings': 'results depend on financing scheme, each financing scheme entails some households being worse off; rural households worse off when infrastructure is deficit-financed or paid through tariff revenue; rural households benefit most when financed through consumption taxes or by external aid', 'channels': 'movement of rural workers out of quasi-subsistence agriculture to other locations and sectors', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",there can be spatial differences to how connected regions within a country are to markets purely due to transport costs,infrastructure,0,1,0,spatial; income,1.0,0.0,real consumption wage differences,"results depend on financing scheme, each financing scheme entails some households being worse off; rural households worse off when infrastructure is deficit-financed or paid through tariff revenue; rural households benefit most when financed through consumption taxes or by external aid",movement of rural workers out of quasi-subsistence agriculture to other locations and sectors,-1.0,2.0 +5,"Al-Mamun, A., Wahab, S. A., Mazumder, M. N. H., & Su, Z.",2014,Empirical Investigation on the Impact of Microcredit on Women Empowerment in Urban Peninsular Malaysia,Journal of Developing Areas,https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2014.0030,article,development,Malaysia,2011,2.0,implicit,women,structured face-to-face interviews,quasi-experimental,cross-sectional stratified random sampling,242,individual,"subnational, urban",1.0,"household economic portfolio model (Chen & Dunn, 1996)",can not establish full experimental design,"[{'intervention': 'microcredit; training', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'empowerment index (personal savings; personal income; asset ownership)', 'findings': 'increase in household decision-making for women; increase in economic security for women; constrained by inability for individuals to obtain loans', 'channels': 'individual access to finance; collective agency increase through meetings and training', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,microcredit; training,0,0,1,gender; income,1.0,0.0,empowerment index (personal savings; personal income; asset ownership),increase in household decision-making for women; increase in economic security for women; constrained by inability for individuals to obtain loans,individual access to finance; collective agency increase through meetings and training,1.0,2.0 +6,"Alinaghi, N., Creedy, J., & Gemmell, N.",2020,The redistributive effects of a minimum wage increase in New Zealand: A microsimulation analysis,Australian Economic Review,https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8462.12381,article,economics,New Zealand,2012-2013,,implicit,,New Zealand Household Economic Survey (HES),simulation,microsimulation model; uses Atkinson index,3500,individual,national,0.0,,"large sample weights may bias specific groups, e.g. sole parents","[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Atkinson index', 'findings': 'small impact on inequality of income signals bad programme targeting; significant reduction in poverty measures for sole parents already in employment only, but insignificant for sole parents overall', 'channels': 'many low-wage earners are secondary earners in higher income households; low-wage households often have no wage earners at all', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 0}]",,minimum wage,1,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Atkinson index,"small impact on inequality of income signals bad programme targeting; significant reduction in poverty measures for sole parents already in employment only, but insignificant for sole parents overall",many low-wage earners are secondary earners in higher income households; low-wage households often have no wage earners at all,-1.0,0.0 +7,"Chao, C.-C., Ee, M. S., Nguyen, X., & Yu, E. S. H.",2022,"Minimum wage, firm dynamics, and wage inequality: Theory and evidence",International Journal Of Economic Theory,https://doi.org/10.1111/ijet.12307,article,economics,global,2005-2015,,,formal workers,"WB Doing Business Survey, WDI, ILOSTAT",quasi-experimental,dual economy general-equilibrium model,43,country,national,1.0,Harris & Todaro rural-urban migration model,"decreasing inequality through increased rural agricultural capital, while reasonable, has to be a prior assumption; short-term firm exit has to be omitted","[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'short-term reduction of skilled-unskilled wage gap but increased unemployment, decreased welfare; long-term increased wage equality and improved social welfare', 'channels': 'firm exit from urban manufacturing increases capital to rural agricultural sector', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,minimum wage,1,0,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,"short-term reduction of skilled-unskilled wage gap but increased unemployment, decreased welfare; long-term increased wage equality and improved social welfare",firm exit from urban manufacturing increases capital to rural agricultural sector,-1.0,2.0 +8,"Clark, S., Kabiru, C. W., Laszlo, S., & Muthuri, S.",2019,The Impact of Childcare on Poor Urban Women’s Economic Empowerment in Africa,Demography,https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00793-3,article,sociology,Kenya,2015-2016,12.0,explicit,mothers,national administrative survey Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System,experimental,RCT,738,individual,"subnational, urban",1.0,economic empowerment theory,results restricted to 1 year; relatively high attrition rate,"[{'intervention': 'subsidy (childcare)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment probability difference', 'findings': 'subsidy increased employment probability (8.5ppts) for poor married mothers', 'channels': 'increased ability to work through lower childcare burden', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'subsidy (childcare)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'hours worked', 'findings': 'subsidy decreased hours worked without decreasing income for single mothers', 'channels': 'allows shifting to jobs with more regular hours', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,subsidy (childcare),0,1,0,gender,1.0,1.0,employment probability difference,subsidy increased employment probability (8.5ppts) for poor married mothers,increased ability to work through lower childcare burden,1.0,2.0 +9,"Clark, S., Kabiru, C. W., Laszlo, S., & Muthuri, S.",2019,The Impact of Childcare on Poor Urban Women’s Economic Empowerment in Africa,Demography,https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00793-3,article,sociology,Kenya,2015-2016,12.0,explicit,mothers,national administrative survey Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System,experimental,RCT,738,individual,"subnational, urban",1.0,economic empowerment theory,results restricted to 1 year; relatively high attrition rate,"[{'intervention': 'subsidy (childcare)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment probability difference', 'findings': 'subsidy increased employment probability (8.5ppts) for poor married mothers', 'channels': 'increased ability to work through lower childcare burden', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'subsidy (childcare)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'hours worked', 'findings': 'subsidy decreased hours worked without decreasing income for single mothers', 'channels': 'allows shifting to jobs with more regular hours', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,subsidy (childcare),0,1,0,gender,1.0,0.0,hours worked,subsidy decreased hours worked without decreasing income for single mothers,allows shifting to jobs with more regular hours,-1.0,2.0 +10,"Debowicz, D., & Golan, J",2014,The impact of Oportunidades on human capital and income distribution in Mexico: A top-down/bottom-up approach,Journal of Policy Modeling,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2013.10.014,article,economics,Mexico,2008,,explicit,poor,national administrative survey Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (ENIGH) 2008,simulation,"general equilibrium model, microeconometric simulation model",30000,household,national,1.0,human capital theory,analytical household-level limitations; no indirect cost-effects able to be accounted for; static model,"[{'intervention': 'direct transfers (cash)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; generational', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'raises average income of poorest households by 23%; increasing skills decreases inequality', 'channels': 'cash influx; positive wage effect benefitting those who keep their children at work; direct benefit for human capital increase (school attendance), indirect benefit for increased scarcity of unskilled labor', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",study attempts to explictly account for spillover effects,direct transfers (cash),0,1,0,income; generational,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,raises average income of poorest households by 23%; increasing skills decreases inequality,"cash influx; positive wage effect benefitting those who keep their children at work; direct benefit for human capital increase (school attendance), indirect benefit for increased scarcity of unskilled labor",-1.0,2.0 +11,"Gates, L. B.",2000,Workplace Accommodation as a Social Process,Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation,https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009445929841,article,sociology,United States,2000,12.0,explicit,mentally ill workers,"survey, protocol",qualitative,action protocol development,12,individual,"subnational, local",0.0,,,"[{'intervention': 'counseling (workplace accommodation)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'disability', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment (rtw)', 'findings': 'successful accommodation requires social component; relationship largest barrier; agency of returnee must be strengthened', 'channels': 'unsuccessful accommodations rely on the functional aspect; supervisors play primary role in success of accommodation process', 'direction': 1, 'significance': None}]",,counseling (workplace accommodation),0,1,1,disability,1.0,0.0,employment (rtw),successful accommodation requires social component; relationship largest barrier; agency of returnee must be strengthened,unsuccessful accommodations rely on the functional aspect; supervisors play primary role in success of accommodation process,1.0, +12,"Hardoy, I., & Schøne, P.",2015,Enticing even higher female labor supply: The impact of cheaper day care,Review of Economics of the Household,https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-013-9215-8,article,economics,Norway,1995-2006,48.0,implicit,mothers,Norwegian Labor and Welfare Service (NAV); Register for Employers and Employees,quasi-experimental,triple-difference approach,200530,individual,national,1.0,,simultaneous capacity extension may bias results,"[{'intervention': 'subsidy (child care)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; education; migration', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment; hours worked', 'findings': 'child care price reduction increased female labour supply (about 5pct); no impact on mothers already participating in labour market; stronger impact on low-education mothers, low-income households; no significant impact on immigrant mothers', 'channels': 'day care expenditure larger part of low-income/-education households creating larger impact; may also be due to average lower employment rates for those households', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,subsidy (child care),1,1,0,gender; education; migration,1.0,0.0,employment; hours worked,"child care price reduction increased female labour supply (about 5pct); no impact on mothers already participating in labour market; stronger impact on low-education mothers, low-income households; no significant impact on immigrant mothers",day care expenditure larger part of low-income/-education households creating larger impact; may also be due to average lower employment rates for those households,1.0,2.0 +13,"Hojman, A., & López Bóo, F.",2019,Cost-Effective Public Daycare in a Low-Income Economy Benefits Children and Mothers,Inter-American Development Bank,https://doi.org/10.18235/0001849,working paper,development,Nicaragua,2013-2015,24.0,implicit,poor mothers,baseline survey and 12-month follow-up survey,experimental,RCT; instrumental variable; marginal treatment effects,1442,individual,"subnational, urban",1.0,,effect on employment is insignificant with IV on randomization alone; relatively small overall sample,"[{'intervention': 'subsidy (childcare)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'gender; generational; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'free childcare significantly increases work participation of mothers (14ppts); increases human capital of children', 'channels': 'subsidy removes associated childcare costs (fewer childcare hours)', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,subsidy (childcare),0,1,1,gender; generational; income,1.0,0.0,employment,free childcare significantly increases work participation of mothers (14ppts); increases human capital of children,subsidy removes associated childcare costs (fewer childcare hours),1.0,2.0 +14,"Shepherd-Banigan, M., Pogoda, T. K., McKenna, K., Sperber, N., & Van Houtven, C. H.",2021,Experiences of VA vocational and education training and assistance services: Facilitators and barriers reported by veterans with disabilities,In Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal,https://doi.org/10.1037/prj0000437,article,psychology,United States,2018,,explicit,disabled,interviews,qualitative,semi-structured interviews,26,individual,"subnational, local",0.0,,sample restricted to veterans with caregiver; data provide little evidence for supported employment efficacy,"[{'intervention': 'training', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'age; disability', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment (rtw)', 'findings': 'vocational and educational services help strengthen individual agency and motivation; potential disability payment loss may impede skills development efforts', 'channels': 'primary barriers health problems, programmes not accomodating disabled veteran student needs; primary facilitator financial assistance for education and individual motivation', 'direction': 1, 'significance': None}]",,training,0,0,1,age; disability,1.0,1.0,employment (rtw),vocational and educational services help strengthen individual agency and motivation; potential disability payment loss may impede skills development efforts,"primary barriers health problems, programmes not accomodating disabled veteran student needs; primary facilitator financial assistance for education and individual motivation",1.0, +15,"Silveira Neto, R. D. M., & Azzoni, C. R.",2011,Non-spatial government policies and regional income inequality in brazil,Regional Studies,https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400903241485,article,economics,Brazil,1995-2005,,implicit,poor,national administrative survey 'Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicılio' (PNAD),quasi-experimental,beta convergence test,27,region,national,1.0,,limited underlying data only allows estimation of Bolsa impact at endline; minimum wage had to be estimated from minimum-wage equal job incomes,"[{'intervention': 'minimum wage; direct transfers (cash)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'spatial; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'incomes have converged between regions after introduction of cash transfer and minimum wage with both accounting for 26.2% of effect; minimum wage contributed 16.6% to overall Gini reduction, transfers 9.6%', 'channels': 'quasi-regional effects through predominant transfers to poorer regions', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,minimum wage; direct transfers (cash),1,0,1,spatial; income,1.0,1.0,Gini coeff,"incomes have converged between regions after introduction of cash transfer and minimum wage with both accounting for 26.2% of effect; minimum wage contributed 16.6% to overall Gini reduction, transfers 9.6%",quasi-regional effects through predominant transfers to poorer regions,-1.0,2.0 +16,"Sotomayor, Orlando J.",2020,Can the minimum wage reduce poverty and inequality in the developing world? Evidence from Brazil,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105182,article,economics,Brazil,1995-2015,12.0,implicit,workers,national administrative surveys Monthly Employment survey (PME),quasi-experimental,difference-in-difference estimator,40000,household,national,1.0,,"survey data limited to per dwelling, can not account for inhabitants moving","[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'poverty', 'findings': 'within three months of minimum wage increases poverty declined by 2.8%', 'channels': None, 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'inequality declined by 2.4%; decreasing impact over time; diminishing returns when minimum is high relative to median earnings', 'channels': 'unemployment costs (job losses) overwhelmed by benefits (higher wages); but inelastic relationship of increase and changes in poverty', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,minimum wage,1,0,0,income,0.0,0.0,poverty,within three months of minimum wage increases poverty declined by 2.8%,,-1.0,2.0 +17,"Sotomayor, Orlando J.",2020,Can the minimum wage reduce poverty and inequality in the developing world? Evidence from Brazil,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105182,article,economics,Brazil,1995-2015,12.0,implicit,workers,national administrative surveys Monthly Employment survey (PME),quasi-experimental,difference-in-difference estimator,40000,household,national,1.0,,"survey data limited to per dwelling, can not account for inhabitants moving","[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'poverty', 'findings': 'within three months of minimum wage increases poverty declined by 2.8%', 'channels': None, 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'inequality declined by 2.4%; decreasing impact over time; diminishing returns when minimum is high relative to median earnings', 'channels': 'unemployment costs (job losses) overwhelmed by benefits (higher wages); but inelastic relationship of increase and changes in poverty', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",,minimum wage,1,0,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,inequality declined by 2.4%; decreasing impact over time; diminishing returns when minimum is high relative to median earnings,unemployment costs (job losses) overwhelmed by benefits (higher wages); but inelastic relationship of increase and changes in poverty,-1.0,2.0 +18,"Khan, M. A., Walmsley, T., & Mukhopadhyay, K.",2021,Trade liberalization and income inequality: The case for Pakistan,Journal of Asian Economics,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2021.101310,article,economics,Pakistan,2010-2011,,implicit,workers,GTAP database; SAM Pakistan 2010-2011 (IFPRI),simulation,computable general equilibrium model; MyGTAP model,30,region,national,1.0,,generalizability might be reduced due to production factor reallocations specific to the rural poor context of Pakistan,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; spatial', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'mixed results for free-trade agreements (some Large TA negative correlation w Gini, some regional/bilateral also); impact of trade liberalization depends on micro-economic factors; greater mobility dissipates short-term effects; long-term some increase in income equality', 'channels': 'increases in income of poor rural agricultural farm households dependent on grain (with largest export grain rising under most FTA, livestock falling); equity increases through increased wages of farm workers, when this did not happen generally equity decrease; wage compression effects', 'direction': 0, 'significance': 0}]",,trade liberalization,1,1,0,income; spatial,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,"mixed results for free-trade agreements (some Large TA negative correlation w Gini, some regional/bilateral also); impact of trade liberalization depends on micro-economic factors; greater mobility dissipates short-term effects; long-term some increase in income equality","increases in income of poor rural agricultural farm households dependent on grain (with largest export grain rising under most FTA, livestock falling); equity increases through increased wages of farm workers, when this did not happen generally equity decrease; wage compression effects",0.0,0.0 +19,"Davies, J. M., Brighton, L. J., Reedy, F., & Bajwah, S.",2022,"Maternity provision, contract status, and likelihood of returning to work: Evidence from research intensive universities in the UK",Gender Work And Organization,https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12843,article,organization,United Kingdom,2013-2018,,implicit,high-skill female workers,FOI data of Russell Group universities,observational,cross-sectional; pooled odds ratios,17,employer,,0.0,scarce high-level academic female representation through 'leaky pipeline',fragmented data restricting observable variables; doest not account for atypical/short-term contracts,"[{'intervention': 'paid leave (childcare)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment (rtw ratios)', 'findings': 'significantly decreased employment probability for rtw on fixed-term contracts compared to open-ended contracts; most universities provided limited access to maternity payment for fixed-contract staff', 'channels': 'fewer included provisions in fixed-term contracts; strict policies on payments if contract ends before end of maternity leave/minimum length of rtw; long-term continuous service requirements for extended payments', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",study on public university employers only,paid leave (childcare),0,1,1,gender,1.0,1.0,employment (rtw ratios),significantly decreased employment probability for rtw on fixed-term contracts compared to open-ended contracts; most universities provided limited access to maternity payment for fixed-contract staff,fewer included provisions in fixed-term contracts; strict policies on payments if contract ends before end of maternity leave/minimum length of rtw; long-term continuous service requirements for extended payments,-1.0,2.0 +20,"Broadway, B., Kalb, G., McVicar, D., & Martin, B.",2020,The Impact of Paid Parental Leave on Labor Supply and Employment Outcomes in Australia,Feminist Economics,https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1718175,article,economics,Australia,2009-2012,14.0,explicit,working mothers,"national administrative surveys Baseline Mothers Survey (BaMS), Family and Work Cohort Study (FaWCS)",quasi-experimental,propensity score matching,5000,individuals,national,1.0,,can not account for child-care costs; can not fully exclude selection bias into motherhood; potential (down-ward) bias through pre-birth labor supply effects/financial crisis,"[{'intervention': 'paid leave (childcare)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment (rtw)', 'findings': 'short-term (<6months) decrease of rtw; long-term (>6-9months) significant positive impact on returning to work in same job under same conditions; greatest response from disadvantaged mothers', 'channels': 'supplants previous employer-funded leave which often did not exist for disadvantaged mothers; reduction in opportunity cost of delaying rtw', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",child-care costs may have additional dampening effect on rtw,paid leave (childcare),1,1,0,gender; income,1.0,0.0,employment (rtw),short-term (<6months) decrease of rtw; long-term (>6-9months) significant positive impact on returning to work in same job under same conditions; greatest response from disadvantaged mothers,supplants previous employer-funded leave which often did not exist for disadvantaged mothers; reduction in opportunity cost of delaying rtw,1.0,2.0 +21,"Mun, E., & Jung, J.",2018,"Policy generosity, employer heterogeneity, and women’s employment opportunities: The welfare state paradox reexamined",American Sociological Review,https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418772857,article,sociology,Japan,1992-2009,84.0,explicit,working mothers,Japan Company Handbook for Job Searchers,quasi-experimental,,600,enterprise,national,0.0,welfare state paradox (over-representation of women in low-authority jobs in progressive welfare states),limited generalizability with unique Japanese LM institutional features; limited ability to explain voluntary effects as lasting or as symbolic compliance and impression management,"[{'intervention': 'paid leave (childcare)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'job quality', 'findings': 'no change for promotions for firms not previously providing leave, positive promotion impact for firms already providing leave; incentive-based policies may lead to larger effects', 'channels': 'voluntary compliance to maintain positive reputations', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'paid leave (childcare)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'no increase in hiring discrimination against women reflected as decreased employment probability', 'channels': 'decreases may be due to supply-side mechanisms based on individual career planning and reinforced existing gender division of household labour', 'direction': 0, 'significance': 0}]",,paid leave (childcare),1,0,0,gender,1.0,0.0,job quality,"no change for promotions for firms not previously providing leave, positive promotion impact for firms already providing leave; incentive-based policies may lead to larger effects",voluntary compliance to maintain positive reputations,1.0,1.0 +22,"Mun, E., & Jung, J.",2018,"Policy generosity, employer heterogeneity, and women’s employment opportunities: The welfare state paradox reexamined",American Sociological Review,https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418772857,article,sociology,Japan,1992-2009,84.0,explicit,working mothers,Japan Company Handbook for Job Searchers,quasi-experimental,,600,enterprise,national,0.0,welfare state paradox (over-representation of women in low-authority jobs in progressive welfare states),limited generalizability with unique Japanese LM institutional features; limited ability to explain voluntary effects as lasting or as symbolic compliance and impression management,"[{'intervention': 'paid leave (childcare)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'job quality', 'findings': 'no change for promotions for firms not previously providing leave, positive promotion impact for firms already providing leave; incentive-based policies may lead to larger effects', 'channels': 'voluntary compliance to maintain positive reputations', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'paid leave (childcare)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'no increase in hiring discrimination against women reflected as decreased employment probability', 'channels': 'decreases may be due to supply-side mechanisms based on individual career planning and reinforced existing gender division of household labour', 'direction': 0, 'significance': 0}]",,paid leave (childcare),1,0,0,gender,1.0,0.0,employment,no increase in hiring discrimination against women reflected as decreased employment probability,decreases may be due to supply-side mechanisms based on individual career planning and reinforced existing gender division of household labour,0.0,0.0 +23,"Liyanaarachchi, T. S., Naranpanawa, A., & Bandara, J. S.",2016,Impact of trade liberalisation on labour market and poverty in Sri Lanka. An integrated macro-micro modelling approach,Economic Modelling,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.07.008,article,economy,Sri Lanka,2009-2010,12.0,implicit,workers,national administrative Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES),simulation,macro-micro computable general equilibrium model,19958,household,national,1.0,,static model not able to account for transition paths; no disaggregated sectoral input-output data available,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Atkinson index; S-Gini index; Atkinson-Gini index; Entropy index', 'findings': 'reduced absolute poverty for tariff elimination only, mixed results but reduction for tariff elim and fiscal policy changes together; income inequality increases in long-run in all sectors', 'channels': 'increased wage differences (esp for manager, professionals, technicians and urban workers); low-income households more dependent on private/gov transfers which do not increase with trade liberalization', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,trade liberalization,1,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Atkinson index; S-Gini index; Atkinson-Gini index; Entropy index,"reduced absolute poverty for tariff elimination only, mixed results but reduction for tariff elim and fiscal policy changes together; income inequality increases in long-run in all sectors","increased wage differences (esp for manager, professionals, technicians and urban workers); low-income households more dependent on private/gov transfers which do not increase with trade liberalization",1.0,2.0 +24,"Wang, J., & Van Vliet, O.",2016,"Social Assistance and Minimum Income Benefits: Benefit Levels, Replacement Rates and Policies Across 26 Oecd Countries, 1990-2009",European Journal of Social Security,https://doi.org/10.1177/138826271601800401,article,economics,global,1990-2009,,implicit,low-income,World Bank CPI indicators; Penn World Table,observational,cross-country comparative analysis,26,country,national,0.0,,data availability necessitated indicator construction for real minimum benefits and replacement rates,"[{'intervention': 'direct transfer (social assistance)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'real wage; replacement rate', 'findings': 'real benefit levels increased in most countries, benefit levels increasing more than consumer prices; income replacement rates mixed outcomes with decreases in some countries where real benefit levels increased', 'channels': 'bulk of increases comes from deliberate policy changes; benefit levels not linked to wages and policy changes not taking into account changes in wages', 'direction': 1, 'significance': None}]",,direct transfer (social assistance),1,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,real wage; replacement rate,"real benefit levels increased in most countries, benefit levels increasing more than consumer prices; income replacement rates mixed outcomes with decreases in some countries where real benefit levels increased",bulk of increases comes from deliberate policy changes; benefit levels not linked to wages and policy changes not taking into account changes in wages,1.0, +25,"Kuriyama, A., & Abe, N.",2021,Decarbonisation of the power sector to engender a 'Just transition’ in Japan: Quantifying local employment impacts,Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110610,article,development,Japan,2016,,,rural workers,Historical Data of Power Supply and Demand Record Data,simulation,multi-step projection modelling; use Gini coefficient,10,region,national,0.0,,has to assume amount of generated power as stable square function increase 2016-2050; employment numbers based on initial estimated model data only,"[{'intervention': 'infrastructure', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'power sector decarbonisation positively impacts rural workers through increased employment probability', 'channels': 'attachment of larger-scale renewable energy to rural sectors increases employment scarcity', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]","highest impact in construction and manufacturing sector, long-term large impact in power sector, stable impacts throughout in service sectors and others",infrastructure,0,1,0,spatial,1.0,0.0,employment,power sector decarbonisation positively impacts rural workers through increased employment probability,attachment of larger-scale renewable energy to rural sectors increases employment scarcity,1.0,2.0 +26,"Stock, R. (2021).",2021,Bright as night: Illuminating the antinomies of `gender positive’ solar development,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105196,article,development,India,2018,1.0,implicit,women,"baseline survey, interviews",observational,quantitative survey and in-depth interviews; discourse analysis,200,household,"subnational, rural",0.0,authoritative knowledge power framework (Laclau&Mouffe),no causal research,"[{'intervention': 'infrastructure', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income; spatial', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'insignificant increased employment probability; advantaged women predominantly belong to dominant castes', 'channels': 'project capture by village female elites; women of disadvantaged castes further excluded from training and work opportunities', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 0}]",,infrastructure,0,1,0,gender; income; spatial,1.0,0.0,employment,insignificant increased employment probability; advantaged women predominantly belong to dominant castes,project capture by village female elites; women of disadvantaged castes further excluded from training and work opportunities,1.0,0.0 +27,"Xu, C., Han, M., Dossou, T. A. M., & Bekun, F. V.",2021,"Trade openness, FDI, and income inequality: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa",African Development Review,https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12511,article,development,Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cabo‐Verde; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Comoros; Congo; D.R. of the Congo; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea Bissau; Côte d'Ivoire; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria; Rwanda; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; South Africa; Tanzania; Togo; Uganda; Zambia,2000-2015,,implicit,workers,UNDP income equality; UN Conference on Trade and Veleopment FDI; World Bank WDI; World Bank World Governance Indicators,quasi-experimental,generalized method of moments,38,country,national,0.0,,contains a variety of institutional-structural context within region,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (FDI)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'increased income equality through FDI (p < .1)', 'channels': 'primarily goes to agriculture which can employ low-skilled labour', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'trade liberalization', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'significantly decreased income equality through trade liberalization; equally for political stability, corruption, rule of law increase', 'channels': 'higher import than export, creating jobs in other countries', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'education', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'education significantly decreases income equality in the region', 'channels': 'potentially inequal access to education through exclusion (e.g. spatial/gender/financial); differentiated quality of education', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,trade liberalization (FDI),0,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,increased income equality through FDI (p < .1),primarily goes to agriculture which can employ low-skilled labour,-1.0,1.0 +28,"Xu, C., Han, M., Dossou, T. A. M., & Bekun, F. V.",2021,"Trade openness, FDI, and income inequality: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa",African Development Review,https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12511,article,development,Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cabo‐Verde; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Comoros; Congo; D.R. of the Congo; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea Bissau; Côte d'Ivoire; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria; Rwanda; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; South Africa; Tanzania; Togo; Uganda; Zambia,2000-2015,,implicit,workers,UNDP income equality; UN Conference on Trade and Veleopment FDI; World Bank WDI; World Bank World Governance Indicators,quasi-experimental,generalized method of moments,38,country,national,0.0,,contains a variety of institutional-structural context within region,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (FDI)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'increased income equality through FDI (p < .1)', 'channels': 'primarily goes to agriculture which can employ low-skilled labour', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'trade liberalization', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'significantly decreased income equality through trade liberalization; equally for political stability, corruption, rule of law increase', 'channels': 'higher import than export, creating jobs in other countries', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'education', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'education significantly decreases income equality in the region', 'channels': 'potentially inequal access to education through exclusion (e.g. spatial/gender/financial); differentiated quality of education', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,trade liberalization,0,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,"significantly decreased income equality through trade liberalization; equally for political stability, corruption, rule of law increase","higher import than export, creating jobs in other countries",1.0,2.0 +29,"Xu, C., Han, M., Dossou, T. A. M., & Bekun, F. V.",2021,"Trade openness, FDI, and income inequality: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa",African Development Review,https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12511,article,development,Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cabo‐Verde; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Comoros; Congo; D.R. of the Congo; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea Bissau; Côte d'Ivoire; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria; Rwanda; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; South Africa; Tanzania; Togo; Uganda; Zambia,2000-2015,,implicit,workers,UNDP income equality; UN Conference on Trade and Veleopment FDI; World Bank WDI; World Bank World Governance Indicators,quasi-experimental,generalized method of moments,38,country,national,0.0,,contains a variety of institutional-structural context within region,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (FDI)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'increased income equality through FDI (p < .1)', 'channels': 'primarily goes to agriculture which can employ low-skilled labour', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 1}, {'intervention': 'trade liberalization', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'significantly decreased income equality through trade liberalization; equally for political stability, corruption, rule of law increase', 'channels': 'higher import than export, creating jobs in other countries', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'education', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'education significantly decreases income equality in the region', 'channels': 'potentially inequal access to education through exclusion (e.g. spatial/gender/financial); differentiated quality of education', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,education,1,1,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,education significantly decreases income equality in the region,potentially inequal access to education through exclusion (e.g. spatial/gender/financial); differentiated quality of education,1.0,2.0 +30,"Gilbert, A., Phimister, E., & Theodossiou, I.",2001,The potential impact of the minimum wage in rural areas,Regional Studies,https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400120084759,article,economic,United Kingdom,1991-1998,84.0,implicit,rural workers,national administrative panel survey British Household Panel Survey (BHPS),observational,observational methods with counterfactual approach,5500,household,"subnational, rural",1.0,,has to assume no effects on employment,"[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'overall insignificant decrease of income inequality; policy will have spatial dimension with rural households more affected; larger positive impact for remote rural households', 'channels': 'rural component depends on proximity to urban areas through having access to urban markets', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 1}]",,minimum wage,1,0,0,spatial; income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,overall insignificant decrease of income inequality; policy will have spatial dimension with rural households more affected; larger positive impact for remote rural households,rural component depends on proximity to urban areas through having access to urban markets,-1.0,1.0 +31,"Adams, S., & Atsu, F.",2015,Assessing the distributional effects of regulation in developing countries,Journal of Policy Modeling,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2015.08.003,article,economics,global,1970-2012,,implicit,developing countries,panel data,quasi-experimental,"system general method of moments, fixed effects, OLS; using Gini coefficient",72,country,national,0.0,,macro-level observations subsumed under region-level scale only,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (FDI)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related', 'channels': 'wrong targeting incentive structure for FDI', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'regulation (labour)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'labour regulations and business regulations negatively related to equitable income distribution while credit market regulation has no effect in income distribution; FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related', 'channels': 'regulatory policies often lack institutional capability to optimize for benefits; policies require specific targeting of inequality reduction', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'education (school enrolment)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'school enrolment positively related to equitable income distribution', 'channels': 'capacity-building for public administration practitioners; more context-adapted policies generated', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]","LM regulations defined as hiring/firing, minimum wage, severance pay; business reg. bureaucracy costs, business starting costs, licensing and compliance costs; credit market oversight of banks, private sector credit, interest rate controls",trade liberalization (FDI),1,0,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related,wrong targeting incentive structure for FDI,1.0,2.0 +32,"Adams, S., & Atsu, F.",2015,Assessing the distributional effects of regulation in developing countries,Journal of Policy Modeling,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2015.08.003,article,economics,global,1970-2012,,implicit,developing countries,panel data,quasi-experimental,"system general method of moments, fixed effects, OLS; using Gini coefficient",72,country,national,0.0,,macro-level observations subsumed under region-level scale only,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (FDI)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related', 'channels': 'wrong targeting incentive structure for FDI', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'regulation (labour)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'labour regulations and business regulations negatively related to equitable income distribution while credit market regulation has no effect in income distribution; FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related', 'channels': 'regulatory policies often lack institutional capability to optimize for benefits; policies require specific targeting of inequality reduction', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'education (school enrolment)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'school enrolment positively related to equitable income distribution', 'channels': 'capacity-building for public administration practitioners; more context-adapted policies generated', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]","LM regulations defined as hiring/firing, minimum wage, severance pay; business reg. bureaucracy costs, business starting costs, licensing and compliance costs; credit market oversight of banks, private sector credit, interest rate controls",regulation (labour),1,0,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,labour regulations and business regulations negatively related to equitable income distribution while credit market regulation has no effect in income distribution; FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related,regulatory policies often lack institutional capability to optimize for benefits; policies require specific targeting of inequality reduction,1.0,2.0 +33,"Adams, S., & Atsu, F.",2015,Assessing the distributional effects of regulation in developing countries,Journal of Policy Modeling,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2015.08.003,article,economics,global,1970-2012,,implicit,developing countries,panel data,quasi-experimental,"system general method of moments, fixed effects, OLS; using Gini coefficient",72,country,national,0.0,,macro-level observations subsumed under region-level scale only,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (FDI)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related', 'channels': 'wrong targeting incentive structure for FDI', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'regulation (labour)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'labour regulations and business regulations negatively related to equitable income distribution while credit market regulation has no effect in income distribution; FDI unlikely to generate equity-oriented welfare effects; trade openness not significantly related', 'channels': 'regulatory policies often lack institutional capability to optimize for benefits; policies require specific targeting of inequality reduction', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'education (school enrolment)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'school enrolment positively related to equitable income distribution', 'channels': 'capacity-building for public administration practitioners; more context-adapted policies generated', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]","LM regulations defined as hiring/firing, minimum wage, severance pay; business reg. bureaucracy costs, business starting costs, licensing and compliance costs; credit market oversight of banks, private sector credit, interest rate controls",education (school enrolment),1,0,0,income,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,school enrolment positively related to equitable income distribution,capacity-building for public administration practitioners; more context-adapted policies generated,-1.0,2.0 +34,"Delesalle, E.",2021,The effect of the Universal Primary Education program on consumption and on the employment sector: Evidence from Tanzania,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105345,article,development,Tanzania,2002-2012,36.0,implicit,rural workers,Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Population and Housing Census 2002; Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA),quasi-experimental,difference-in-difference approach; IV approach,433606,individual,national,0.0,human capital theory,"can not directly identify intervention compliers, constructing returns for household heads; 'villagization' effect may have impacted unobserved variables affecting returns","[{'intervention': 'education (universal)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; education', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'education', 'findings': 'improved overall rural education; education inequalities persist along gender, geographical, income lines', 'channels': 'villagization effect, increased education access', 'direction': 1, 'significance': None}, {'intervention': 'education (universal)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'spatial; education; gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'consumption', 'findings': 'sg increase for formal wage and agricultural work for women; sg increase in non-agricultural wage work for men; returns to education lower in agriculture than other self-employment/wage work', 'channels': 'sector choice changes, increased individual productivity', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",programme increased primary education access and introduced more technical curriculum,education (universal),0,1,0,spatial; education,1.0,1.0,education,"improved overall rural education; education inequalities persist along gender, geographical, income lines","villagization effect, increased education access",1.0, +35,"Delesalle, E.",2021,The effect of the Universal Primary Education program on consumption and on the employment sector: Evidence from Tanzania,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105345,article,development,Tanzania,2002-2012,36.0,implicit,rural workers,Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Population and Housing Census 2002; Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA),quasi-experimental,difference-in-difference approach; IV approach,433606,individual,national,0.0,human capital theory,"can not directly identify intervention compliers, constructing returns for household heads; 'villagization' effect may have impacted unobserved variables affecting returns","[{'intervention': 'education (universal)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; education', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'education', 'findings': 'improved overall rural education; education inequalities persist along gender, geographical, income lines', 'channels': 'villagization effect, increased education access', 'direction': 1, 'significance': None}, {'intervention': 'education (universal)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'spatial; education; gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'consumption', 'findings': 'sg increase for formal wage and agricultural work for women; sg increase in non-agricultural wage work for men; returns to education lower in agriculture than other self-employment/wage work', 'channels': 'sector choice changes, increased individual productivity', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",programme increased primary education access and introduced more technical curriculum,education (universal),0,1,1,spatial; education; gender,1.0,0.0,consumption,sg increase for formal wage and agricultural work for women; sg increase in non-agricultural wage work for men; returns to education lower in agriculture than other self-employment/wage work,"sector choice changes, increased individual productivity",1.0,2.0 +36,"Rendall, M.",2013,Structural change in developing countries: Has it decreased gender inequality?,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.005,article,development,Brazil; Mexico; India; Thailand,1987-2008,,implicit,women,WB Household Survey; IPUMS USA/International/CPS,quasi-experimental,comparative,~200_000,individual,,,capital displacing production brawn (Galor & Weil 1996),,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (structural changes)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'female employment shares', 'findings': 'all countries decreased brawn requirements (smallest change in India, 0.2ppts; largest in Thailand 15ppts); decreased labour market gender inequality in Brazil; largest steady LM inequality in India; mixed results for Mexico and Thailand', 'channels': ""reduced requirement for physical labour (switching 'brawn' to 'brain'); switching to e.g. service-oriented labour"", 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'trade liberalization (structural changes)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'female wage shares', 'findings': 'Brazil closed wage gap the fastest, though widened more recently; Thailand/India mixed results', 'channels': 'reduced returns on brain intensive occupations in Brazil; different LM skill structure in Thailand/India, context dependency of structural changes', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 1}]",,trade liberalization (structural changes),0,1,0,gender; income,1.0,1.0,female employment shares,"all countries decreased brawn requirements (smallest change in India, 0.2ppts; largest in Thailand 15ppts); decreased labour market gender inequality in Brazil; largest steady LM inequality in India; mixed results for Mexico and Thailand",reduced requirement for physical labour (switching 'brawn' to 'brain'); switching to e.g. service-oriented labour,1.0,2.0 +37,"Rendall, M.",2013,Structural change in developing countries: Has it decreased gender inequality?,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.005,article,development,Brazil; Mexico; India; Thailand,1987-2008,,implicit,women,WB Household Survey; IPUMS USA/International/CPS,quasi-experimental,comparative,~200_000,individual,,,capital displacing production brawn (Galor & Weil 1996),,"[{'intervention': 'trade liberalization (structural changes)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'female employment shares', 'findings': 'all countries decreased brawn requirements (smallest change in India, 0.2ppts; largest in Thailand 15ppts); decreased labour market gender inequality in Brazil; largest steady LM inequality in India; mixed results for Mexico and Thailand', 'channels': ""reduced requirement for physical labour (switching 'brawn' to 'brain'); switching to e.g. service-oriented labour"", 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'trade liberalization (structural changes)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'female wage shares', 'findings': 'Brazil closed wage gap the fastest, though widened more recently; Thailand/India mixed results', 'channels': 'reduced returns on brain intensive occupations in Brazil; different LM skill structure in Thailand/India, context dependency of structural changes', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 1}]",,trade liberalization (structural changes),0,1,0,gender; income,1.0,1.0,female wage shares,"Brazil closed wage gap the fastest, though widened more recently; Thailand/India mixed results","reduced returns on brain intensive occupations in Brazil; different LM skill structure in Thailand/India, context dependency of structural changes",1.0,1.0 +38,"Emigh, R. J., Feliciano, C., O’Malley, C., & Cook-Martin, D.",2018,The effect of state transfers on poverty in post-socialist eastern europe,Social Indicators Research,https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1660-y,article,economics,Hungary; Bulgaria; Romania,1999-2002,24.0,implicit,poor people,panel data,quasi-experimental,two-wave panel analysis,7949,individual,,0.0,institutionalist perspective; underclass perspective; neoclassical perspective,does not have long-term panel data to fully analyse underclass/neoclassical perspectives,"[{'intervention': 'direct transfers (cash)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'income; ethnicity; gender', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'poverty', 'findings': 'level of payments may have been too small to eliminate long-term adverse effects of market transition; in each country case state transfers to individuals reduced their poverty and were at least short-term beneficial; poverty most feminized in Hungary, least feminized in Bulgaria', 'channels': 'poverty may have feminized as market transitions progressed; larger positive transfer effects for low-education households', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]","increased probability for poverty of low-education, large, Roma households",direct transfers (cash),0,1,1,income; ethnicity; gender,0.0,0.0,poverty,"level of payments may have been too small to eliminate long-term adverse effects of market transition; in each country case state transfers to individuals reduced their poverty and were at least short-term beneficial; poverty most feminized in Hungary, least feminized in Bulgaria",poverty may have feminized as market transitions progressed; larger positive transfer effects for low-education households,-1.0,2.0 +39,"Field, E., Pande, R., Rigol, N., Schaner, S., & Moore, C. T.",2019,On Her Own Account: How Strengthening Women’s Financial Control Affects Labor Supply and Gender Norms,National Bureau of Economic Research,https://doi.org/10.3386/w26294,working paper,development,India,2013-2017,36.0,explicit,women workers,"baseline, 2 follow-up surveys; MGNREGS Program Management information system (MIS)",experimental,"RCT; individual account (partial treatment), account + training (full treatment)",5851,household,"subnational, rural",1.0,financial empowerment as normative tool,possibility of upward bias due to attenuation over time,"[{'intervention': 'training (financial)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'gender; spatial', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment; hours worked', 'findings': ""short-term deposits into women's own accounts and training increased labour supply; long-term increased acceptance of female work and female hours worked"", 'channels': 'increased bargaining power through greater control of income', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",long-run effects for constrained women working driven by private sector,training (financial),0,0,1,gender; spatial,1.0,0.0,employment; hours worked,short-term deposits into women's own accounts and training increased labour supply; long-term increased acceptance of female work and female hours worked,increased bargaining power through greater control of income,1.0,2.0 +40,"Militaru, E., Popescu, M. E., Cristescu, A., & Vasilescu, M. D.",2019,Assessing minimum wage policy implications upon income inequalities: The case of Romania,Sustainability,https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092542,article,economics,Romania,2013-2014,12.0,explicit,low-income workers,EU Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC),simulation,microsimulation (EUROMOD); counterfactual analysis,7500,household,national,0.0,,"dependent on simulation order; can not account for tax evasion, behavioural changes; over-representation of employees in sample; remaining unobservables on inequality outcomes","[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; gender', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'small decrease in wage inequality; larger impact for women', 'channels': 'concentration of workers at minimum wage level matters, women make up larger part; increase in number of wage earners in total number of employees', 'direction': -1, 'significance': None}]","does not see minimum wage increase as most efficient income inequality reduction policy per se, but sees efficiency possibly enhanced by accompanying skills development programs",minimum wage,1,1,0,income; gender,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,small decrease in wage inequality; larger impact for women,"concentration of workers at minimum wage level matters, women make up larger part; increase in number of wage earners in total number of employees",-1.0, +41,"Pi, J., & Zhang, P.",2016,Hukou system reforms and skilled-unskilled wage inequality in China,China Economic Review,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2016.08.009,article,economics,China,1988-2013,12.0,implicit,urban workers,national administrative Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2010-13,simulation,general equilibrium approach,,household,"subnational, urban",0.0,,generalizability restricted due to specific institutional contexts of Chinese hukou systems; no disaggregation to private/public sector; job search not part of model,"[{'intervention': 'social security; education (access)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; migration; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'decile ratios (90th to 10th)', 'findings': 'increased access to social security for urban migrants decreases wage inequality between skilled-unskilled urban workers if skilled sector is more capital intensive than unskilled sector', 'channels': None, 'direction': -1, 'significance': None}]",,social security; education (access),1,1,0,income; migration; ethnicity,1.0,1.0,decile ratios (90th to 10th),increased access to social security for urban migrants decreases wage inequality between skilled-unskilled urban workers if skilled sector is more capital intensive than unskilled sector,,-1.0, +42,"Poppen, M., Lindstrom, L., Unruh, D., Khurana, A., & Bullis, M.",2017,Preparing youth with disabilities for employment: An analysis of vocational rehabilitation case services data,Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation,https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-160857,article,health,United States,2003-2013,,explicit,disabled young adults,state administrative Oregon Rehabilitation Case Automation system (ORCA),quasi-experimental,multivariate logistic regression,4443,individual,subnational,0.0,,data gathered for service delivery not research may provide lower reliability; no measurement for service quality; no nationally representative sample lowers generalizability,"[{'intervention': 'training (vocational rehabilitation)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'disability; gender; age', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'significantly decreased employment probability for women, having mental illness or traumatic brain injury as primary disability, multiple disabilities, interpersonal/self-care impediment, receiving social security benefits; youth-transition programme, more VR services significantly increased', 'channels': None, 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,training (vocational rehabilitation),0,1,1,disability; gender; age,1.0,0.0,employment,"significantly decreased employment probability for women, having mental illness or traumatic brain injury as primary disability, multiple disabilities, interpersonal/self-care impediment, receiving social security benefits; youth-transition programme, more VR services significantly increased",,1.0,2.0 +43,"Rosen, M. I., Ablondi, K., Black, A. C., Mueller, L., Serowik, K. L., Martino, S., Mobo, B. H., & Rosenheck, R. A.",2014,Work outcomes after benefits counseling among veterans applying for service connection for a psychiatric condition,Psychiatric Services,https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201300478,article,health,United States,2008-2011,6.0,explicit,disabled,"baseline, 3 follow-up surveys; timeline follow-back calendar",experimental,RCT,84,individual,local,1.0,,can not locate active ingredient,"[{'intervention': 'counseling (benefits counseling)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'disability; age', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'hours worked (rtw)', 'findings': 'counseling had significant increas on more waged days worked; on average 3 additional days worked in 28 days preceding measurement', 'channels': 'not clear, neither belief about work, benefits, nor mental health/substance abuse service use increased significantly', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,counseling (benefits counseling),0,0,1,disability; age,1.0,0.0,hours worked (rtw),counseling had significant increas on more waged days worked; on average 3 additional days worked in 28 days preceding measurement,"not clear, neither belief about work, benefits, nor mental health/substance abuse service use increased significantly",1.0,2.0 +44,"Standing, G.",2015,Why Basic Income’s Emancipatory Value Exceeds Its Monetary Value,Basic Income Studies,https://doi.org/10.1515/bis-2015-0021,article,economics,India,2010-2013,18.0,implicit,low-income households,baseline & 3 follow-up surveys and censuses; structured interviews,experimental,"rural RCT, randomization at village level; 18/12 months of ubi provision with follow up surveys and interviews",1665,household,"subnational, rural",1.0,"Lauderdale paradox (money, if scarce becomes even more valuable resource)",,"[{'intervention': 'ubi', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'income; ethnicity', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'debt', 'findings': 'ubi significantly decreases debts; results go beyond direct monetary value; households did not have to work for lenders/to pay off debt', 'channels': 'directly enables debt reduction; reduces debt-dependency risks; avoids taking on new debt; enables choosing less exploitative forms of borrowing', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'ubi', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'income; ethnicity', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'saving', 'findings': 'ubi significantly increases savings; allowed increasing economic security/empowerment of households', 'channels': 'shift to institutionalized saving strengthening shock resilience; schooling of the household head, landholding, caste and household size also affect savings', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]","ubi paid in addition to any other state transfers; included in sample for effects on work choice (forced to work for debtors, free to pursue own-work)",ubi,1,0,1,income; ethnicity,0.0,0.0,debt,ubi significantly decreases debts; results go beyond direct monetary value; households did not have to work for lenders/to pay off debt,directly enables debt reduction; reduces debt-dependency risks; avoids taking on new debt; enables choosing less exploitative forms of borrowing,-1.0,2.0 +45,"Standing, G.",2015,Why Basic Income’s Emancipatory Value Exceeds Its Monetary Value,Basic Income Studies,https://doi.org/10.1515/bis-2015-0021,article,economics,India,2010-2013,18.0,implicit,low-income households,baseline & 3 follow-up surveys and censuses; structured interviews,experimental,"rural RCT, randomization at village level; 18/12 months of ubi provision with follow up surveys and interviews",1665,household,"subnational, rural",1.0,"Lauderdale paradox (money, if scarce becomes even more valuable resource)",,"[{'intervention': 'ubi', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'income; ethnicity', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'debt', 'findings': 'ubi significantly decreases debts; results go beyond direct monetary value; households did not have to work for lenders/to pay off debt', 'channels': 'directly enables debt reduction; reduces debt-dependency risks; avoids taking on new debt; enables choosing less exploitative forms of borrowing', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'ubi', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'income; ethnicity', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'saving', 'findings': 'ubi significantly increases savings; allowed increasing economic security/empowerment of households', 'channels': 'shift to institutionalized saving strengthening shock resilience; schooling of the household head, landholding, caste and household size also affect savings', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]","ubi paid in addition to any other state transfers; included in sample for effects on work choice (forced to work for debtors, free to pursue own-work)",ubi,1,0,1,income; ethnicity,0.0,0.0,saving,ubi significantly increases savings; allowed increasing economic security/empowerment of households,"shift to institutionalized saving strengthening shock resilience; schooling of the household head, landholding, caste and household size also affect savings",1.0,2.0 +46,"Suh, M.-G.",2017,Determinants of female labor force participation in south korea: Tracing out the U-shaped curve by economic growth,Social Indicators Research,https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1245-1,article,sociology,"Korea, Rep.",1980-2014,,implicit,married women,Statistical Database in Statistical Information Service Korea 2015,quasi-experimental,OLS regression; log-linear analysis; contingency analysis with cross-tab statistics; Gini coeff as income inequality indicator,35,case,national,0.0,,,"[{'intervention': 'education', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; generational; gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': ""education significant increase in married women's employment; female labour force participation negative correlation with income inequality; female education also positively affects daughters' education level"", 'channels': 'education being necessary not sufficient condition, also influenced by family size and structure', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",,education,0,1,0,income; generational; gender,1.0,1.0,employment,education significant increase in married women's employment; female labour force participation negative correlation with income inequality; female education also positively affects daughters' education level,"education being necessary not sufficient condition, also influenced by family size and structure",1.0,2.0 +47,"Wong, S. A.",2019,Minimum wage impacts on wages and hours worked of low-income workers in Ecuador,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.004,article,development,Ecuador,2011-2014,12.0,implicit,wage workers,national employment survey (ENEMDU),quasi-experimental,difference-in-difference approach,1624422,individual,national,1.0,,some small sort-dependency in panel data; can only account for effects in period of economic growth,"[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; gender', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'decreased income inequality through significant increase on income of low-wage earners; larger effect for agricultural workers, smaller for women; potentially negative impact on income of high-earners', 'channels': 'income-compression effect', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; gender', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'hours worked', 'findings': 'significant effect on hours worked; no significant spillover effect on workers in control group; significant negative impact on female hours worked', 'channels': 'possibly decreased intensive margin for female workers; affecting lower income increase of women', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 0}]",,minimum wage,1,1,0,income; gender,0.0,1.0,Gini coeff,"decreased income inequality through significant increase on income of low-wage earners; larger effect for agricultural workers, smaller for women; potentially negative impact on income of high-earners",income-compression effect,-1.0,2.0 +48,"Wong, S. A.",2019,Minimum wage impacts on wages and hours worked of low-income workers in Ecuador,World Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.004,article,development,Ecuador,2011-2014,12.0,implicit,wage workers,national employment survey (ENEMDU),quasi-experimental,difference-in-difference approach,1624422,individual,national,1.0,,some small sort-dependency in panel data; can only account for effects in period of economic growth,"[{'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; gender', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'decreased income inequality through significant increase on income of low-wage earners; larger effect for agricultural workers, smaller for women; potentially negative impact on income of high-earners', 'channels': 'income-compression effect', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}, {'intervention': 'minimum wage', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; gender', 'type': 0, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'hours worked', 'findings': 'significant effect on hours worked; no significant spillover effect on workers in control group; significant negative impact on female hours worked', 'channels': 'possibly decreased intensive margin for female workers; affecting lower income increase of women', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 0}]",,minimum wage,1,1,0,income; gender,0.0,0.0,hours worked,significant effect on hours worked; no significant spillover effect on workers in control group; significant negative impact on female hours worked,possibly decreased intensive margin for female workers; affecting lower income increase of women,1.0,0.0 +49,"Blumenberg, E., & Pierce, G.",2014,A Driving Factor in Mobility? Transportation’s Role in Connecting Subsidized Housing and Employment Outcomes in the Moving to Opportunity (MTO) Program,Journal of the American Planning Association,https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2014.935267,article,development,United States,1994-2001,84.0,implicit,poor women,baseline and follow-up survey;,experimental,RCT; multinomial regression model,3199,household,national,1.0,,"low levels of explanatory power for individual model outcomes, esp for disadvantaged population groups; possible endogeneity bias through unobserved factors (e.g. human capital); binary distinction automobile access, not graduated","[{'intervention': 'subsidy (housing mobility)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; gender; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment rate', 'findings': 'no relationship between subsidy and employment outcomes; increased employment probability for people living in high transit areas, but no increased job gain for moving to high transit area itself', 'channels': 'high transit area employment paradox may be due to inherent difficulty of connecting household to opportunity in dispersed labor market just via access to transit', 'direction': 0, 'significance': 0}, {'intervention': 'infrastructure (transport)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; gender; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment rate', 'findings': 'increased employment probability for car ownership', 'channels': 'better transport mobility to access wider job opportunity network', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",98% of sample is female,subsidy (housing mobility),0,1,0,spatial; gender; ethnicity,1.0,1.0,employment rate,"no relationship between subsidy and employment outcomes; increased employment probability for people living in high transit areas, but no increased job gain for moving to high transit area itself",high transit area employment paradox may be due to inherent difficulty of connecting household to opportunity in dispersed labor market just via access to transit,0.0,0.0 +50,"Blumenberg, E., & Pierce, G.",2014,A Driving Factor in Mobility? Transportation’s Role in Connecting Subsidized Housing and Employment Outcomes in the Moving to Opportunity (MTO) Program,Journal of the American Planning Association,https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2014.935267,article,development,United States,1994-2001,84.0,implicit,poor women,baseline and follow-up survey;,experimental,RCT; multinomial regression model,3199,household,national,1.0,,"low levels of explanatory power for individual model outcomes, esp for disadvantaged population groups; possible endogeneity bias through unobserved factors (e.g. human capital); binary distinction automobile access, not graduated","[{'intervention': 'subsidy (housing mobility)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; gender; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment rate', 'findings': 'no relationship between subsidy and employment outcomes; increased employment probability for people living in high transit areas, but no increased job gain for moving to high transit area itself', 'channels': 'high transit area employment paradox may be due to inherent difficulty of connecting household to opportunity in dispersed labor market just via access to transit', 'direction': 0, 'significance': 0}, {'intervention': 'infrastructure (transport)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'spatial; gender; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment rate', 'findings': 'increased employment probability for car ownership', 'channels': 'better transport mobility to access wider job opportunity network', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",98% of sample is female,infrastructure (transport),0,1,0,spatial; gender; ethnicity,1.0,1.0,employment rate,increased employment probability for car ownership,better transport mobility to access wider job opportunity network,1.0,2.0 +51,"Dieckhoff, M., Gash, V., & Steiber, N.",2015,Measuring the effect of institutional change on gender inequality in the labour market,Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2014.12.001,article,sociology,global,,,,,,,,,,,,,averaged across national contexts may obscure specific insights,"[{'intervention': 'collective action (unionization)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': None, 'indicator': None, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'men and women increased standard employment contracts with increased unionization; female employment does not decrease', 'channels': 'increased standard employment contract probability', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",MISSING EXTRACTION OF DEREGULATION OF TEMPORARY CONTRACTS; FAMILY POLICIES,collective action (unionization),0,1,0,gender,,,employment,men and women increased standard employment contracts with increased unionization; female employment does not decrease,increased standard employment contract probability,1.0,2.0 +52,"Alexiou, C., & Trachanas, E.",2023,The impact of trade unions and government party orientation on income inequality: Evidence from 17 OECD economies,Journal of Economic Studies,https://doi.org/10.1108/JES-12-2021-0612,article,economics,global,,,,,,,,,,,,power resources theory,"can not account for individual drivers such as collective bargaining, arbitration, etc","[{'intervention': 'collective action (trade unionization)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income; gender', 'type': None, 'indicator': None, 'measures': 'Gini coeff', 'findings': 'unionization strongly related with decreasing income inequalityi; right-wing institutional contexts related with increased income inequality', 'channels': 'redistribution of political power under unions; weak unionization increases post-redistribution inequality', 'direction': None, 'significance': None}]",,collective action (trade unionization),1,1,0,income; gender,,,Gini coeff,unionization strongly related with decreasing income inequalityi; right-wing institutional contexts related with increased income inequality,redistribution of political power under unions; weak unionization increases post-redistribution inequality,, +53,"Ahumada, P. P.",2023,"Trade union strength, business power, and labor policy reform: The cases of Argentina and Chile in comparative perspective",International Journal of Comparative Sociology,https://doi.org/10.1177/00207152231163846,article,sociology,global,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,,"[{'intervention': 'collective action (unionization)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 0, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'income', 'type': None, 'indicator': None, 'measures': 'political power', 'findings': 'more unequal distribution of', 'channels': None, 'direction': None, 'significance': None}]",EXTRACTION HAD TO CODE CLASS POWER INEQUALITY AS INCOME BASED INEQUALITY,collective action (unionization),1,0,0,income,,,political power,more unequal distribution of,,, +54,"Shin, J., & Moon, S.",2006,"Fertility, relative wages, and labor market decisions: A case of female teachers",Economics of Education Review,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.06.004,article,economics,United States,1968-1988,,implicit,female teachers,National Longitudinal Survey of the Young Women,,,2712,individual,,,,"looks at strictly female sample, can not account for changes relative to men","[{'intervention': 'education; regulation (relative wage-setting)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'employment (FLFP rate)', 'findings': 'higher relative wages significantly increase FLFP for female teachers; presence of new-born baby significantly decreases FLFP, significantly more than non-teachers; does not have effect on teacher/non-teacher selection', 'channels': 'most relevant determinant for FLFP as teacher is college major in education; education level significant determinant; higher baby-exit effect may be due to relatively temporary lower wage loss for teachers', 'direction': None, 'significance': None}]",,education; regulation (relative wage-setting),1,1,0,gender,1.0,1.0,employment (FLFP rate),"higher relative wages significantly increase FLFP for female teachers; presence of new-born baby significantly decreases FLFP, significantly more than non-teachers; does not have effect on teacher/non-teacher selection",most relevant determinant for FLFP as teacher is college major in education; education level significant determinant; higher baby-exit effect may be due to relatively temporary lower wage loss for teachers,, +55,"Cardinaleschi, S., De Santis, S., & Schenkel, M.",2019,Effects of decentralised bargaining on gender inequality: Italy,Panoeconomicus,https://doi.org/10.2298/PAN1903325C,article,economics,Italy,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,,"[{'intervention': 'collective action (collective bargaining)', 'institutional': 1, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'gender; income', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'income shares', 'findings': 'collective negotiation practices address gender gap marginally significantly; need to be supplemented by policies considering human-capital aspects', 'channels': 'occupational segregation into feminized industries', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 1}]",,collective action (collective bargaining),1,1,0,gender; income,1.0,1.0,income shares,collective negotiation practices address gender gap marginally significantly; need to be supplemented by policies considering human-capital aspects,occupational segregation into feminized industries,1.0,1.0 +56,"Coutinho, M. J., Oswald, D. P., & Best, A. M.",2006,Differences in Outcomes for Female and Male Students in Special Education,Career Development for Exceptional Individuals,https://doi.org/10.1177/08857288060290010401,article,education,United States,1972-1994,72.0,implicit,young women with disabilities,National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS-88),quasi-experimental,,13391,individual,national,0.0,,sample does not include students with more severe impairments due to requirement of self-reporting; selection based on parent-reporting may introduce bias,"[{'intervention': 'education (special needs)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'disability; gender; income; age', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'female employment ratio, female income ratio', 'findings': 'females with disabilities less likely to be employed, and earned less than males with disability; females less likely to obtain high school diploma; more likely to be biological parent', 'channels': 'men employed more months, more hours per week than women; largest income difference in special education and low achievers', 'direction': -1, 'significance': 2}]",more men than women in skilled/technical positions across all groups,education (special needs),0,1,0,disability; gender; income; age,1.0,0.0,"female employment ratio, female income ratio","females with disabilities less likely to be employed, and earned less than males with disability; females less likely to obtain high school diploma; more likely to be biological parent","men employed more months, more hours per week than women; largest income difference in special education and low achievers",-1.0,2.0 +57,"Ferguson, J.-P.",2015,The control of managerial discretion: Evidence from unionization’s impact on employment segregation,American Journal of Sociology,https://doi.org/10.1086/683357,article,sociology,United States,,,implicit,women workers,,quasi-experimental,,,,,1.0,,most of effects may be caused by unsobservables,"[{'intervention': 'collective action (unionization)', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 1, 'inequality': 'gender; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 0, 'measures': 'employment', 'findings': 'stronger unionization associated with more women and minorities in management, marginally significant', 'channels': 'possible self-selection into unionization', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 1}]",,collective action (unionization),0,1,1,gender; ethnicity,1.0,0.0,employment,"stronger unionization associated with more women and minorities in management, marginally significant",possible self-selection into unionization,1.0,1.0 +58,"Mukhopadhaya, P.",2003,Trends in income disparity and equality enhancing (?) education policies in the development stages of Singapore,International Journal of Educational Development,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(01)00051-7,article,education,Singapore,,,,,,,,,,,,,higher education institutional context may make generalizability outside Singapore harder,"[{'intervention': 'education', 'institutional': 0, 'structural': 1, 'agency': 0, 'inequality': 'migration; generational; income; ethnicity', 'type': 1, 'indicator': 1, 'measures': 'Gini coeff; Theil index; relative mean income', 'findings': 'non-uniform representation of academic abilities across parental education backgrounds; education interventions may exacerbate income inequality through bad targeting', 'channels': 'primary income inequality for migrants through between-occupational inequality; advantaged income brackets also advantaged in educative achievement brackets; system of financing higher education in Singapore further disadvantages poorer households', 'direction': 1, 'significance': 2}]",only contains labour market ancillary outcomes but strong arguments for generational inequalities,education,0,1,0,migration; generational; income; ethnicity,1.0,1.0,Gini coeff; Theil index; relative mean income,non-uniform representation of academic abilities across parental education backgrounds; education interventions may exacerbate income inequality through bad targeting,primary income inequality for migrants through between-occupational inequality; advantaged income brackets also advantaged in educative achievement brackets; system of financing higher education in Singapore further disadvantages poorer households,1.0,2.0 + diff --git a/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.docx b/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.docx new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ee12191 Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.docx differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.html b/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8cd52b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.html @@ -0,0 +1,4134 @@ + + + + + + + + + +Scoping Review: Preliminary findings + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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Scoping Review: Preliminary findings

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Addressing inequalities in the World of Work

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The data sample

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+
flowchart TD;
+    search_db["Records identified through database searching (n=1643)"] --> starting_sample;
+    search_prev["Records identified through other sources (n=753)"] --> starting_sample["Starting sample (n=2396)"];
+
+    starting_sample -- "Duplicate removal (-22 removed) "--> dedup["Records after duplicates removed (n=2418)"];
+
+    dedup -- "Title screening (982 excluded)" --> title_screened["Records after titles screened (n=1436)"];
+
+    title_screened -- "Abstract screening (1039 excluded)"--> abstract_screened["Records after abstracts screened (n=397)"];
+
+    abstract_screened -- "  Language screening (1 excluded)  "--> language_screened["Records after language screened (n=396)"];
+
+    language_screened -- "  Full-text screening (316 excluded)  "--> full-text_screened["Full-text articles assessed for eligibility (n=38) STILL OUTSTANDING: 358"];
+
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+
Figure 1: Sample sorting process through identification and screening
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+
    +
  • strongest focus on income inequality (vertical), with many horizontal inequality studies including aspect of income inequality
  • +
  • horizontal inequalities: strongest focus on income - gender inequalities (horizontal)
  • +
  • interventions: +
      +
    • strongest research base on labour rights protection interventions
    • +
    • second on infrastructural interventions
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    • third on agency-strengthening ones: training, financial access, education programmes
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  • +
  • formalization & social protection research rarely goes into inequality outcomes beyond ‘income’ effects; most excluded for that reason
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Figure 2: Overall inequality types in sample
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Preliminary findings

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Figure 3: Finished and projected inequality types
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+
    +
  • interventions most strongly target gender-income divide +
      +
    • most studies here recommend further scale-integration between agency/structural approaches
    • +
    • most studies also only focus on analysing a single scale however
    • +
  • +
  • interventions often have intersectional impacts even if not targeted at them +
      +
    • most visible for institutional/structural interventions and spatial inequalities
    • +
    • studies analysing intersectional inequalities near unanimously recommend intersectional targeting
    • +
  • +
  • individual agency-based interventions (training, subsidies, maternity benefits, transfers, microcredit, etc): +
      +
    • seem most effective for targeting WoW outcomes of disability inequalities
    • +
    • seem marginally effective for targeting WoW outcomes of gender inequalities
    • +
    • require additional mediating scales for other inequalities
    • +
  • +
  • more structural interventions (education, infrastructural, ubi, trade liberalization, collective action): +
      +
    • seem most effective for spatial, income, education-generational inequalities
    • +
    • often show longer-term impacts, requiring longer periods of analyses
    • +
    • can work without additional agency-based interventions, few studies analyse both at same time
    • +
  • +
+
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+

Preliminary limitations

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Figure 4: Finished and projected intervention types
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  • stronger institutional-structural research focus in developed countries, with more structural-agency based in developing countries
  • +
  • employment creation as a category is often subsumed in other structural/institutional analyses
  • +
  • little evidence-based research on effect of interventions targeting education on world of work outcomes
  • +
  • spatial inequality most evenly geographically spread evidence base
  • +
  • empirical base on interventions targeting disability inequalities strongly restricted on developed countries, especially United States
  • +
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Figure 5: Country spread
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+ + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.pdf b/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..615aed2 Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/meeting_eoy.pdf differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/notes.docx b/05-final_paper/notes.docx new file mode 100644 index 0000000..98f4d99 Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/notes.docx differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/notes.html b/05-final_paper/notes.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e23178 --- /dev/null +++ b/05-final_paper/notes.html @@ -0,0 +1,5824 @@ + + + + + + + + + +Inequalities and the world of work + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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+

Inequalities and the world of work

+

Conceptual Definitions and Key Terms

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+ + +
+ +
+

1 Definitions

+
+

1.1 Defining the world of work

+
+
Work
+
+“any activity performed by persons of any sex and age to produce goods or to provide services for use by others or for own use” (ILO, 2013, p. 2). +
+
+“Work is defined irrespective of its formal or informal character or the legality of the activity” (ILO, 2013, p. 2). +
+
Employment
+
+those in employment are “of working age who, during a reference period, were engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit” (ILO, 2013, p. 6). +
+
+“For pay or profit refers to work done as part of a transaction in exchange for remuneration payable in the form of wages or salaries for time worked or work done, or in the form of profits derived from the goods and services produced through market transactions” (ILO, 2013, p. 6). +
+
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
key concepts
production of goodsproduction/processing/collection of agricultural, fishing, hunting, gathering, mining, forestry, water, household goods, effecting major repairs/building additions to dwelling,farm buildings, etc.
provision of servicesprovision of accounting, management, transport, meal preparation/serving, waste disposal/recycling, cleaning, decorating, dwelling/goods maintenance, childcare/-instruction, elderly/dependent person/pet/domestic animal care
use by others or own-usewhether final products are destined mainly for final use by producer as capital formation or final consumption, or by others
for pay or profitas part of transaction in exchange for remuneration (wages/salary), or in form of profits from goods/services through market transactions
+
+
Informal economy
+
+“economic activities carried out by workers and economic units that are — in law or in practice — not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements.” (ILO, 2002, p. 14; 2015, pp. 4, 25) +
+
+“all remunerative work […] that is not registered, regulated or protected by existing legal or regulatory frameworks, as well as non-remunerative work undertaken in an income-producing enterprise.” (ilo2003?) +
+
+“does not cover illicit activities, in particular the provision of services or the production, sale, possession or use of goods forbidden by law” (ILO, 2015, p. 4) +
+
Formal economy
+
+sufficiently covered by formal arrangements, defined as “procedures established by the government to regulate the actions and functions of economic units and workers, as well as protecting their legal rights.” [ILO, 2021, p.10] +
+
Informal employment outside the informal sector
+
+comprises employees holding informal jobs in formal sector enterprises, as paid domestic workers employed by households, contributing family workers working in formal sector enterprises, and own-account workers producing exclusively for own final use by their household (ILO, 2023a) +
+
+ +
+
Labour underutilization
+
+are “mismatches between labour supply and demand which translate into an unmet need for employment among the population” (ILO, 2013, p. 9) +
+
+can be “time-related underemployment, when the working time of persons in employment is insufficient in relation to alternative employment situations in which they are willing and available to engage” (ILO, 2013, p. 9) +
+
+can be “unemployment, reflecting an active job search by persons not in employment” (ILO, 2013, p. 9) +
+
+can be “potential labour force, [those] not in employment who express an interest in this form of work but for whom existing conditions limit their active job search and/or their availability.” (ILO, 2013, p. 9) +
+
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
key concepts
remunerationsee ‘for pay or profit’ above
formal arrangementsprotection of legal rights, regulation of actions/functions of economic units
legality of activitywhile concept of ‘work’ covers acitivities regardless of illicit status, informal economy excludes illicit activities
utilization of labordescribed various states of labour supply and demand mismatch such as unemployment, time-related underemployment, and potential labour force
+
+
+

1.2 Defining forms of work

+

“five mutually exclusive forms of work are identified for separate measurement” (ILO, 2013, p. 3)

+
+
own-use production work
+
+comprising production of goods and services for own final use +
+
+“all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any activity to produce goods or provide services for own final use.” (ILO, 2013, p. 5) +
+
employment work
+
+comprising work performed for others in exchange for pay or profit +
+
+“all those of working age who, during a short reference period, were engaged in any activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit” (ILO, 2013, p. 6) +
+
unpaid trainee work
+
+comprising work performed for others without pay to acquire workplace experience or skills +
+
+“all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid activity to produce goods or provide services for others, in order to acquire workplace experience or skills in a trade or profession” (ILO, 2013, p. 7) +
+
volunteer work
+
+comprising non-compulsory work performed for others without pay +
+
+“all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid, non-compulsory activity to produce goods or provide services for others” +
+
other work activities
+
+not defined in this resolution +
+
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
key concepts
intensity of participationhow many hours/days work occupies in a certain time frame
own-use/other-usesee above
for pay or profitsee above
non-compulsoryundertaken without civil, legal, administrative requirement and different from fulfilment of social responsibilities of communal, cultural or religious nature
+
+
+

1.3 Defining inequality

+
+
Vertical inequality
+
+“income inequality between all households in a country” (ILO, 2021b) +
+
+“the debate on vertical inequalities has increasingly focused on how, in many countries, the richest 1 per cent or the top 10 per cent of income earners have improved their situation compared to the poorest 99 per cent or bottom 90 per cent.” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
Horizontal inequality
+
+“Horizontal inequalities occur when some groups within the population find themselves disadvantaged and discriminated against on the basis of their visible identity, for example their gender, colour or beliefs, among others” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
+“public attention has incerasingly been devoted to racial or ethnic inequalities, and to the rifts between migrants and nationals.” +
+
+“Spatial inequalities between rural and urban areas and, more recently, between large mega-cities and smaller, more peripheral, cities have also been studied with increasing concern” +
+
+“also refers to disparities in employment outcomes, labour rights and opportunities between groups depending on their gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, health status, disability or other characteristics” +
+
Intersectionality
+
+“captures the complex way in which inequalities based on different personal characteristics overlap and accumulate [and] particular dynamics of inequality appear where people belong to multiple disadvantaged groups.” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
Equality of opportunities
+
+“seeks to level the playing field so that gender, ethnicity, birthplace, family background and other caracteristics that are beyond an individual’s control do not influence or harm a person’s future perspective” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
+“ensuring that all people are ‘equally enabled to make the best of such powers as they possess’” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
Equality of outcomes
+
+“a focus on opportunities […] should not distract from the importance of observed inequality of outcomes.” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
+“high levels of inequality make it much more difficult to ensure equal opportunities for the next generation [since] high levels of inequality today tend to reduce social mobility tomorrow.” (ILO, 2021a) +
+
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
key concepts
within-group/between-group inequalitythe horizontal or vertical nature of inequality, existing as income inequality between all households in a country (vertical) or when some population groups are disadvantaged/discriminated against (horizontal)
overlapping characteristicsall inequalities can be intersectional through individuals’ overlapping disadvantaged characteristics or situations
enabling of opportunity/outcome equalitytwo philosophies of seeking equality, by either providing a ‘level playing field’ (opportunity) or ensuring equality in the resulting situations (outcome)
+

Missing:

+
    +
  • difference between relative and absolute inequality (see Ravallion (2018), 637)
  • +
+
+
+

1.4 Inequalities in the world of work

+
+

1.4.1 Income Inequality

+
    +
  • main focus point of many inequality measurements (e.g. Gini Coefficient, Palma Ratio) [UN, 2023, A call to action to save SDG10, Policy Brief]
  • +
  • “labour income is the main source of income for most households in the world [thus] unequal access to work and working poverty are major drivers of inequalities” (ILO, 2021b)
  • +
  • “Income inequality, inequality of employment outcomes more generally and inequality of opportunities are intimately related” (ILO, 2022a)
  • +
  • “To some extent, therefore, income inequality is like a prism, which reveals many other forms of inequality, including those generated in the world of work” (ILO, 2021a, p. 13).
  • +
  • “Throughout the world, earnings inequality is also determined by a set of other factors, including status in employment (whether a worker is a wage employee or self-employed), sector of activity and occupation, enterprise type, type of contract (for wage earners), and often formality” (ILO, 2019).
  • +
+
+
+

1.4.2 Other forms of inequality

+

Inequalities are always multi-faceted, complex and display intersectional qualities (ILO, 2021a):

+
+

1.4.2.1 Gender inequality

+

These are inequalities that arise because of an individual’s gender:

+
    +
  • while type and extent of inequalities varies by country, “gender inequalities, despite some progress over the past decades, remain persistent and pervasive” (ILO, 2021b).
  • +
  • “women everywhere still face high barriers in entering, remaining and progressing in the labour market, while continuing to bear most of the responsibility for unpaid care work” (ILO, 2022a).
  • +
  • “hinders not only access to education, training and lifelong learning, but also access to quality jobs, housing, mobility, land and capital, as well as social protection” (ILO, 2021b).
  • +
  • more women, globally, work in underemployment, contribute disproportionally to family work, work shorter hours in employment but have longer working days when including unpaid work, are increasingly employed in services sectors, and still suffer a substantial wage gap (ILO, 2016)
  • +
  • “Domestic work is female-dominated, with women accounting for 76.2 per cent of domestic workers” and domestic work, in turn is overwhelmingly informal employment globally (ILO, 2023b, p. 6).
  • +
  • “Disparities in the gendered division of unpaid care work and paid work are the result of deeply rooted inequalities based on gender roles, income, age, education and place of residence” (ILO, 2019).
  • +
+
+
+

1.4.2.2 Socio-demographic inequalities

+

These are inequalities that, like gender inequality, are based on the innate, often visible, identification of a person.

+

Examples are: ethnic, racial inequalities, or those based on religion and beliefs, migrant status, age, sex, or disabilities. (ILO, 2021a, pp. 11–12)

+
    +
  • “the incidence of temporary employment is generally higher among youths” (ILO, 2019).
  • +
  • “Women and young people fare significantly worse in labour markets, an indication of the large inequalities within the world of work in many countries.” (ILO, 2023c)
  • +
  • “In the EU28, some 7% of workers felt they had been discriminated against in the 12 months prior to the survey on grounds of sex, race, religion, age, nationality, disability or sexual orientation” (ILO, 2019).
  • +
+
+
+

1.4.2.3 Spatial inequality

+

These are inequalities that arise because of an individual’s location relative to others:

+
    +
  • “between urban, rural and peripheral areas and richer and poorer regions […] contribute to inequalities in the world of work, as well as to a growing sense of fractured societies” (ILO, 2021b)
  • +
  • due to “unequal access to economic and decent work opportunities, to finance, quality public services, quality education and relevant training, essential social services infrastructures and digital infrastructure” (ILO, 2021b)
  • +
+
+
+

1.4.2.4 Pre-existing inequalities

+

These are inequalities that exist before the labor market enters the picture for an individual and, while intertwined with socio-demographic inequalities, may be useful to differentiate:

+
    +
  • “some inequalities arise well before individuals enter the world of work and addressing them is key to reducing inequalities in the labour market and beyond” (ILO, 2021a)
  • +
  • “inequality in household incomes […] reflects many other correlated or underlying forms of inequality [such as] inequality of opportunity, or inequality of access to health services or education, for example.” (ILO, 2021a, p. 13)
  • +
  • “the world of work plays an important role in reducing inequalities, including in terms of intergenerational social mobility” (ILO, 2021b)
  • +
  • “they also relate to the characteristics […] such as the level of education, poverty or productivity and, of course, their underlying factors.” (ILO, 2021a)
  • +
  • “underlying factors are numerous and include the lack of formal recognition as an individual (the lack of a birth certificate or identity card), the lack of property rights or of clear ownership of assets, or the lack of access to formal banking, all of which are both a form of inequality and increase other forms of inequality.” (ILO, 2021a)
  • +
+
+
+
+

1.4.3 The scale of inequalities

+
    +
  • globally, between countries (vertical)
  • +
  • national inequalities, between all households in one country (vertical)
  • +
  • regional, between urban/rural divides; poor/rich regions (horizontal: spatial)
  • +
  • households, between households with different access to education/essential services/infrastructures (horizontal: spatial)
  • +
  • individuals, between persons based on (visible/invisible) characteristics (horizontal: gender, spatial, pre-existing, …)
  • +
+
+
+

1.4.4 COVID-19 influence

+
    +
  • “[Post COVID-19] recovery patterns vary significantly across regions, countries and sectors [and] the impact has been particularly serious for developing nations that experienced higher levels of inequality, more divergent working conditions and weaker social protection systems even before the pandemic.” (ILO, 2022b)
  • +
  • “The pandemic is deepening various forms of inequality, from exacerbating gender inequity to widening the digital divide.” (ILO, 2022b)
  • +
+
+
+
+

1.5 Outcomes of inequalities

+
    +
  • “[inequalities] slow economic growth and poverty reduction, undermine social mobility and increase the risk of social unrest and political instability [as well as] contribute to the intergenerational transmission of poverty and social exclusion” (ILO, 2022a)
  • +
  • “forms of inequality can be also among the root causes of child labour and forced or compulsory labour in all its forms.” (ILO, 2021b)
  • +
+
+

1.5.1 Inequalities’ impact on employment outcomes

+
    +
  • unemployment: forecloses income prospects
  • +
  • underemployment: +
      +
    • low wages make meeting basic needs impossible (esp. food, healthcare, education, decent housing)
    • +
    • split into ‘time-related underemployment’ (wanting more hourly paid work) and ‘potential labour force’ (not actively looking or not able to work)
    • +
  • +
  • inequality of job quality (achievement of decent work) +
      +
    • “concerns first and foremost those working in the informal economy”, who may experience reduced social protection, productivity, job security, wages and earnings (ILO, 2021a)
    • +
    • “many are in forms of work, such as part-time work, fixed-term contracts and working through private employment agencies, that can offer a stepping stone to employment [but] may give rise to decent work deficits when, among other reasons, they are not regulated well” or used to circumvent legal obligations or without adequate labour/social protection (ILO, 2021b)
    • +
    • “Job quality features are also positively associated with enterprise performance, productivity and innovation, […] reducing sickness absence and the loss of productivity due to working while sick. In addition, job quality contributes to developing organisational commitment and motivation among workers, as well as shaping a climate that is supportive of creativity and the development of the workforce” (ILO, 2019).
    • +
  • +
  • other employment outcomes affected: +
      +
    • overall labor force participation: exclusion from labour market or the ability towards full utilization of labour market opportunities (ILO, 2019, 2021a)
    • +
    • ultimately resulting in income inequalities, in turn becoming driver of subsequent inequal outcomes and barriers in the labour market (as well as outside the labour market), reducing inter-generational social mobility (ILO, 2021b)
    • +
  • +
+
+
+
+
+

2 ILO Policy typology

+

identified in ILO (2021b) and ILO (2022a):

+
    +
  • attention to root causes
  • +
  • addressing both distribution and redistribution +
      +
    • original distribution highly affected by inequalities on labour market
    • +
    • preventing both vertical/horizontal inequalities requires redistribution through taxes and transfers
    • +
  • +
  • fundamental principles and rights and international labour standards
  • +
  • social dialogue and tripartism
  • +
  • interconnectedness, integration and monitoring
  • +
  • country-specific approaches
  • +
+
+

2.1 Policy areas

+ +

guiding principles

+

main policy areas identified (ILO, 2022a):

+

Policy areas, identified by ILO (2022a):

+
    +
  • employment creation
  • +
  • business sustainability promotion +
      +
    • pro-employment framework
    • +
    • gender-transformative framework
    • +
    • promote: +
        +
      • business sustainability
      • +
      • productivity increases
      • +
      • reduction in productivity gaps
      • +
    • +
    • digital infrastructure
    • +
    • technology for decent work
    • +
    • tackling digital divide
    • +
  • +
  • access to education +
      +
    • quality of education/training/skills development
    • +
    • relevance of education/training/skills development
    • +
    • green transition
    • +
    • digital transition
    • +
    • gender-transformative career guidance
    • +
    • improvements of public services/social protection
    • +
    • work-life balance (‘juggle paid work and family care’)
    • +
    • targeted support for disadvantaged groups
    • +
  • +
  • labour right protection +
      +
    • promotion of rights for all workers
    • +
    • minimum wage
    • +
    • collective bargaining systems
    • +
    • equal pay for work of equal value
    • +
    • wage transparency
    • +
    • inclusive labour market institutions
    • +
  • +
  • formalization +
      +
    • approaching informality: +
        +
      • gender-responsive
      • +
      • country-tailored
      • +
      • comprehensive
      • +
      • non-discriminatory
      • +
    • +
    • increase decent work in formal economy
    • +
    • absorb informal workers / economic units
    • +
  • +
  • gender equality +
      +
    • removal of stereotypes
    • +
    • removal of discriminatory law
    • +
    • removal of discriminatory practice
    • +
    • promotion of equality of treatment
    • +
    • promotion of equality of opportunity
    • +
    • data disaggregated by +
        +
      • gender
      • +
      • age
      • +
      • disability
      • +
      • race
      • +
      • ethnicity
      • +
      • migrant status
      • +
    • +
    • occupational gender segregation
    • +
    • unequal pay for work of equal value
    • +
    • gender-based violence
    • +
    • gender-based harassment
    • +
    • gender unequal division of unpaid care work
    • +
  • +
  • trade development +
      +
    • avoid severe economic fluctuations
    • +
    • ensure price stability
    • +
    • promotion of high volume of trade
    • +
    • promotion of steady volume of trade
    • +
    • fundamental principles and rights at work
    • +
    • responsible business practices
    • +
  • +
  • social protection +
      +
    • extend reach of social protection schemes
    • +
    • reach those not adequately protected
    • +
    • ensure access for everyone to: +
        +
      • comprehensive SP
      • +
      • adequate SP
      • +
      • sustainable SP
      • +
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

2.2 Employment creation

+
    +
  • pro-employment, gender-transformative macroeconomic framework
  • +
  • enabling business environment promoting sustainable enterprise,productivity increases, reductions in productivity gaps
  • +
  • digital infrastructure investments for potential of technology for decent work and tackling digital divide
  • +
  • just transition minimizing impacts of environmental changes on employment
  • +
  • effective active labour market policies enabling employment for vulnerable and disadvantaged
  • +
+
+
+

2.3 Equal access to education/training/quality public services from early childhood

+
    +
  • improvements to quality and relevance of education, training, skills development
  • +
  • responsive to labour market needs, changing WoW demands, green/digital transitions, demographic changes
  • +
  • gender-transformative career guidance on e.g. STEM
  • +
  • improvements to quality of public services, social protection to juggle paid work & family care
  • +
  • targeted support for disadvantaged groups
  • +
+
+
+

2.4 Adequate protection of all workers and a fair share of the fruits of growth

+
    +
  • promotion of fundamental principles and rights at work for all workers
  • +
  • adequate minimum wage (Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970, No 131)
  • +
  • implementation of collective bargaining systems
  • +
  • equal pay for work of equal value, wage transparency
  • +
  • effective/inclusive labour market institutions, e.g. relevant inspectorates
  • +
+
+
+

2.5 Transition to the formal economy

+
    +
  • comprehensive, country-tailored, gender-responsive, non-discriminatory strategies tackling drivers of informality
  • +
  • combination of interventions increasing ability of formal economy to provide decent work opportunities, absorption of current informal workers&economic units
  • +
  • strengthening ability of people/enterprises to enter formal economy through incentives and elimination of barriers
  • +
+
+
+

2.6 Gender equality and non-discrimination, equality for all, diversity and inclusion

+
    +
  • removal of stereotypes, discriminatory laws and practices, including at workplace
  • +
  • promotion of positive/transformative measures ensuring equality of treatment&opportunities
  • +
  • more available data disaggregated by gender,age,disability,race,ethnicity,migrant status to monitor policy impacts
  • +
  • combined policy responses within/-out labour market against: occupational gender segregation, unequal pay for work of equal value, gender-based violence/harassment, gender unequal division of unpaid care work
  • +
+
+
+

2.7 Trade and development for a fair globalization and shared prosperity

+
    +
  • full cooperation with relevant international bodies to avoid severe economic fluctuations, ensure price stability
  • +
  • promotion of high and steady volume of intl. trade
  • +
  • promotion/application of fundamental principles and rights at work through trade agreements/in supply chains, alongside responsible business practices
  • +
+
+
+

2.8 Universal and adequate social protection

+
    +
  • extension of reach of national social protection systems
  • +
  • reach those not adequately protected
  • +
  • ensure access for everyone to comprehensive, adequate, sustainable social protection over life cycle
  • +
+
+
+
+

3 Search Protocol

+
+

3.1 Inclusion criteria

+
+
+
+ + +++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 1: Study inclusion and exclusion scoping criteria
ParameterInclusion criteriaExclusion criteria
Time framestudy published in or after 2000study published before 2000
Study typeprimary researchopinion piece, editorial, commentary, news article, literature review
Study recencymost recent publication of studygray literature superseded by white literature publication
Study focusinequality or labour market outcomes as primary outcome (dependent variable)neither inequality nor labour market outcomes as dependent variable
policy measure or strategy as primary intervention (independent variable)no policy measure/strategy as intervention or relationship unclear
specifically relates to some dimension of world of workexists outside world of work for both independent and dependent variables
focus on dimension of inequality in analysisno focus on mention of inequality in analysis
+
+
+
+

not currently used as criteria: - we are probably including qualitative studies (to be tagged) - perhaps studies <2000 (to be tagged) to count quantity?

+
+
+

3.2 Tagging system

+

Tagging:

+
    +
  • inequality(ies) analysed: inequality::
  • +
  • intersectionality: intersectional
  • +
  • intervention: intervention::
  • +
  • outcome: outcome::
  • +
  • review: review:: (meta, systematic, scoping, narrative, ..)
  • +
  • design: design:: (qualitative, mixed, quasi-experimental, experimental)
  • +
  • country: country::
  • +
  • relevancy: relevant, out:: (could be transformed to excluded:: in end step)
  • +
  • status: TODO, done, integrated
  • +
+

see Screening Tool document for exact keywords used during screening.

+
+
+

3.3 Matrix extraction properties

+

For up-to-date usage of extraction keys please see extraction_template.yml in data directory. Information kept here for full-text descriptions of each option, to be migrated to extraction metadata sheet.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Publication infoDescription
author
year
title
publisher
pubtypearticle/working paper - publication type
url/doi
?discipline?The overall discipline the study falls under
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Context infoDescription
countryWhat is the primary/are the primary country/countries under analysis in the study? (set:txt)
country_world_regionWhich ILO region does the country belong to? (set:txt)
country_income_classWhich UN Bank income category does the country belong to? (set:txt)
period_of_analysisWhat is the main period of analysis for the study (in years, e.g. 2010-2012)? (timedelta)
observation_lengthWhat is the main length of observation for the study, if mentioned (in months)? (timedelta)
observation_length_maxWhat is the max length of observation for the study, if it diverges from the average length (in months)? (timedelta)
explicit_targetingis intervention specifically (explicitly) targeted at population/group? (bool:0/1)
target_groupwho is the intervention targeted at (explicitly/implicitly)? (list:txt)
dataWhat dataset/database/collection does the data stem from, if mentioned? (list:txt)
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Results infoDescription
interventionswhat are the independent variables for the study? (list:txt)
intervention_institutionalIs the intervention part of the institutional category? (bool:0/1)
intervention_structuralIs the intervention part of the structural category? (bool:0/1)
intervention_agencyIs the intervention part of the agency and social norms category? (bool:0/1)
inequality_typewhich inequalities/dimensions of inequality are objects of analysis for the study? (list:txt)
inequality_directionIs the main inequality looked at of horizontal or vertical type? (0: vertical; 1: horizontal)
outcome_measureswhat are the dependent variables looked at in the study? (list:txt)
findingswhat are the main findings for the dependent variables? (list:txt)
channelsWhat are the main channels for outcomes identified, if mentioned? (list:txt)
theoryWhat is the main theoretical argument/grounding for the study, if mentioned? (list:txt)
limitationsWhat are the main limitations of the study, if mentioned? (list:txt)
+ ++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Statistical infoDescription
study_designIs the study mainly of experimental, quasi-experimental, qualitative, mixed design? (set:txt)
study_methodWhat is the main method of the study? (list:txt)
indicator_relativeIs the main indicator used relative or absolute? (0: absolute, 1: relative)
sample_sizeWhat is the main sample size/observation number of the study? (numeric)
sample_unitWhat is the main sample unit (person,household,firm, …)? (txt)
representativenessAt what level is the study mainly representative? (national, subnational, rural, urban..) (list:txt)
directionWhat is the main direction of relation between independent/dependent variables? (0: negative, 1: positive)
significanceWhat is the main level of statistical significance? (2: significant, 1: marginally significant, 0: non significant)
+
    +
  • annotation, quick 100-300wd written summary of major properties found above for each study -> ~34 observations per study
  • +
+
+
+

3.4 Search Term clusters

+

These lists have been used to create data-driven term cluster files in the supplementary data directory. The lists have been kept here for historic documentation but should not be used for up-to-date term changes, use the csv files instead.

+
+

3.4.1 World-of-work cluster

+
    +
  • ILO: +
      +
    • work
    • +
    • production of goods, provision of services
    • +
    • use by others or own-use
    • +
    • regardless of legality
    • +
    • labour
    • +
    • production of goods, provision of services,
    • +
    • use by others
    • +
    • of working age
    • +
    • for pay or profit (remuneration, wages, salaries for time worked work done, profits derived from goods or services, through market transactions)
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.2 forms of work cluster

+
    +
  • ILO +
      +
    • own-use
    • +
    • employment
    • +
    • unpaid trainee
    • +
    • volunteer
    • +
    • other work activities
    • +
    • domestic
    • +
    • wage-employed
    • +
    • self-employed
    • +
    • formality
    • +
    • (unpaid) care work
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.3 LM outcome cluster

+
    +
  • ILO: +
      +
    • employment outcomes
    • +
    • labour rights
    • +
    • opportunities between groups
    • +
    • equality of opportunity/outcome
    • +
  • +
+

Finlay (2021):

+
    +
  • labour force participation (also, Pinto et al., 2021)
  • +
  • job quality
  • +
  • career advancement
  • +
  • hours worked
  • +
+

Silvaggi et al. (2020):

+
    +
  • labour force exit
  • +
  • retrurning to work issues
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.4 intervention cluster

+
    +
  • general terms: +
      +
    • intervention (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • policy (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • distributive (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • redistributive (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • regulatory (ILO (2022a))
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.5 policy cluster

+
    +
  • institutional promotion: +
      +
    • institutional support for childcare (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • labour rights (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • minimum wage (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • collective bargaining (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • employment creation ?? (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • business sustainability promotion ?? (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • work-life balance promotion ?? (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • equal pay for work of equal value ?? (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • removal of (discriminatory) law (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • law reformation (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • social dialogue (ILO requested)
    • +
    • guaranteed income (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • universal basic income (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • provision of living wage (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • maternity leave (Chang et al. (2021))
    • +
  • +
  • structural promotion: +
      +
    • cash benefits
    • +
    • services in kind
    • +
    • green transition (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • digital infrastructure (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • (physical) infrastructure (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • quality of education (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • public service improvement (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • lowering of gender segregation (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • price stability intervention (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • extended social protection scheme (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • comprehensive social protection (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • sustainable social protection (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • supported employment (Lettieri & Diez Villoria (2017))
    • +
    • vocational rehabilitation (Silvaggi et al. (2020), Lettieri & Diez Villoria (2017))
    • +
    • unionization (ILO requested)
    • +
  • +
  • agency & social norms: +
      +
    • credit programs (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • career guidance (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • vocational guidance (Nevala et al. (2015))
    • +
    • vocational counselling (Nevala et al. (2015))
    • +
    • counteracting of stereotypes (ILO (2022a))
    • +
    • commuting subsidies (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • housing mobility programs (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • encouraging re-situation/migration (Perez et al. (2022))
    • +
    • encouraging self-advocacy (Nevala et al. (2015))
    • +
    • cognitive behavioural therapy (Lettieri & Diez Villoria (2017))
    • +
    • computer-assisted therapy (Lettieri & Diez Villoria (2017))
    • +
    • work organization (Nevala et al. (2015))
    • +
    • special transportation (Nevala et al. (2015))
    • +
    • collective action (ILO requested)
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.6 inequality cluster

+
    +
  • ILO: +
      +
    • inequality/-ies
    • +
    • barrier(s)
    • +
    • (dis)advantaged
    • +
    • discriminated
    • +
    • disparity/-ies
    • +
    • horizontal / vertical inequality
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.7 vertical inequalities cluster

+
    +
  • income: +
      +
    • Palma ratio (DFI, 2023)
    • +
    • Gini coefficient (DFI, 2023)
    • +
    • Log deviation [our quant indicators]
    • +
    • Theil [our quant indicators]
    • +
    • Atkinson [our quant indicators]
    • +
  • +
  • class Kalasa et al. (2021)
  • +
  • fertility Kalasa et al. (2021)
  • +
  • NOT identified by previous reviews, need to find sources: +
      +
    • bottom percentile
    • +
    • top percentile
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

3.4.8 horizontal inequalities cluster

+

identified by ILO:

+
    +
  • identity
  • +
  • demographic inequalities
  • +
  • demographic markers
  • +
  • gender
  • +
  • colour
  • +
  • beliefs
  • +
  • racial
  • +
  • ethnic
  • +
  • migrant
  • +
  • spatial +
      +
    • rural
    • +
    • urban
    • +
    • mega-cities
    • +
    • small cities
    • +
    • peripheral cities
    • +
  • +
  • age
  • +
  • nationality
  • +
  • ethnicity
  • +
  • health status
  • +
  • disability
  • +
  • characteristics
  • +
+
+
+
+
+

4 Notes on previous reviews

+
+

4.1 Perez2022

+

summary: multi-disciplinary systematic review of association between income, employment, urban poverty. n=243 articles, academic focus on advanced economies; finds significant role of employment in life of urban poor;

+

findings: most relevant barriers for improving labour market outcomes: lack of access to public transport, geographical segregation, labour informality, inadequate human capital

+

(Perez et al., 2022) identify a multitude of factors which ultimately affect income, employment and urban poverty. Among them: gender inequality, through traditional gender roles and lack of empowerment, a lack of childcare, or inequal domestic work; low human capital, which can originate through pre-existing inequalities, spatial inequality, through lack of access to transportation, residential segregation or discrimination, limited access to work, the inter-generational persistence of poverty as well as the impacts of pre-existing inequalities such as lower human capital or larger household sizes;

+

and external factors such as extreme weather events or inflation.

+

Strategies to reduce poverty/unemployment are: participation in informal sectors or illegal activities, credit programs, consumption from informal food sources, family and institutional support for childcare, guaranteed minimum income or universal basic income and/or living wage, income diversification, commuting subsidies, housing mobility programs, and migration.

+
+
+

4.2 Zeinali2021

+

systematic review of female leadership in health sector (LMICs) using intersectional analysis

+

main findings: main barriers at intersection of gender and social identity of professional cadre, race/ethnicity, financial status, culture; main barriers limiting women’s access to career development resources: mentorship, sponsorship opportunities, reduce value, recognition, respect at work for women; channels: increased likelihood for women to take on ‘dual burdens’ professional work and childcare/domestic work, biased views effectiveness of men/women’s leadership styles.

+
+
+

4.3 Pinto2021

+

systematic review of impact of basic income interventions (n=86; 10 different interventions) on labour market, health, educational, housing and other outcomes

+

main findings: workforce participation was main dependent variable for studies, evaluation shift over time to include wider array of outcomes reflecting reigning perspective of BI investments possibly lowering health & social care spending; large focus on advanced economies (US)

+
+
+

4.4 Finlay2001

+

narrative review of connection between women’s reproductive health and women’s economic activity (and gender equality); looking at (causal) effect of fertility (timing, spacing, number of children) on female labour force participation changes (career advancement, job quality, hours worked); separation between LI,MI,HI countries

+

main findings:

+
    +
  • low-inc countries women have to adopt individual strategies of balancing child rearing and labour force part. through selection of job type, relying on other household women for childcare, birth spacing due to mostly informal work
  • +
  • middle-inc countries women have to juggle child rearing, labour force part. with overall income inequality; early childbearing and lone motherhood perpetuate poverty
  • +
  • high-inc countries, SP policies can assist women in managing childrearing and work balance but underlying issues of gender inequality remain
  • +
  • all: childbearing interrupts career advancement
  • +
+
+
+

4.5 Chaudhuri2021

+

systematic review on effects of food insecurity (common byproduct of poverty) on health and social outcomes, focusing on women and children

+

main findings: - female coping behaviours are non-food (livelihood alterations: outdoor employment, asset base selling, borrowing food/money, purchasing food on credit) or food-based (reducing daily intake sizes/frequency, food rationing; nutritional switch; food sharing); - (obligatory) outdoor employment mostly as farm labourers, can result in time poverty - children coping behaviours are begging, stealing, food seeking (with relatives/friends/charitable institutions), dropping out of school - health outcome includes disrupted socio-cognitive development among children

+
+
+

4.6 Chang2021

+

systematic qualitative review of effects of return to paid employment and breast-feeding (n=26)

+

main findings: women experienced physical and emotional difficulties, described gender and employment inequalities in accessing and receiving the support they needed; importance of having workplace legislation in place (and individual motivation) to facilitate breastfeeding during employment; support from employers/colleagues/family members & access to convenient child care helped facilitate breast feeding on return to paid employment

+

channels: - gender role expectations viewing women as responsible for domestic work or childcare (especially in LMICs) - shorter maternity leave times discourage decision towards breast-feeding

+
+
+

4.7 Silvaggi2020

+

systematic review looking at effect of brain tumors on on work ability of those affected (and BT survivors) (n=7)

+

main findings: impact of neuropsychological functioning on work productivity, change of employment status for long-term survivors (?most often? job loss), issues related to return to work process

+

channels: depressive symptoms/cognitive deficits, high short-term mortality, environmental barriers

+

policy recc: vocational rehabilitation

+
+
+

4.8 dePaz-Banez2020

+

systematic review of effects of UBI on labour supply (n=38)

+

main finding: not found any evidence of significant reduction in labour supply, instead labour supply increases globally among adults, men, women, young, old; some insignificant (functional) reductions for: children, elderly, sick, those with disabilities, women with young children to look after, young people who continued studying - do not reduce overall supply since offset by otherwise increased supply

+
+
+

4.9 Lindsay2018a

+

systematic review of role of gender in employment for disabled young adults (n=48)

+

main finding: - majority (21) reported young men with disabilities better employment outcomes than women, fewer (8) showed reverse, minority (5) reported no difference - men with disabilities often work more hours and have higher wages - youth with disabilities half as likely to be employed as typically developing peers; starting life with disability often compounds disadvantages

+

channels: - social supports - gender role expectations - lowered expectations - overprotection from parents/guardians discouraging independence

+
+
+

4.10 Kumari2018

+

systematic review looking at relationship of female labour force participation and economic growth, gender disparity in work participation

+

main findings: U-shaped part. rate; evidence of gender pay disparity across sectors

+

channels affecting FLFP: - demographic factors (fertility, migration, marriages, child care) - economic factors (unemployment, per capita income, non-farm job, infrastructure) - regulatory context (family and childcare policies, tax regimes, presence of subsidized healthcare)

+

policy recc: changes to FLFP require replacement of traditional value system based on inequality of sexes (with females playing subordinate role)

+
+
+

4.11 Ugur2017

+

systematic review of effects of technology adoption on employment (in LMIC/LIC ‘less developed countries’)

+

main findings: positive effect more likely when technology adoption favours product innovation not process innovation and when it is is skill based

+

additional: - techn. adoption less likely to create employment when: related to farm employment not firm/industry employment; related to low-income countries not LMICs; related to data from after 2001 instead of pre-2001 - intl trade, weak forward/backward linkages, weaknesses in governance & labor market institutions can weak job-creating effects of technology adoption

+

inequality: - existing income inequalities makes effect of technology adoption on employment creation more ambiguous (potentially widening rift of demand for skilled versus unskilled labour) - green revolution technologies tend to reduce income/wealth inequality; also negative effect on on-farm employment

+
+
+

4.12 Lettieri2017

+

meta-review of barriers (and drivers) of inclusion into the labour market for people with disabilities (mental illness)

+

main findings: employment outcomes seem increased for individuals able to hide their mental illness, practice of concealment of identity

+

channels: - prejudices: of missing skills, danger, unpredictability; of hiring as act of charity due to being unproductive; of work stress as contradicting requirements of mental health - discriminatory hiring practices - generally low-skilled individuals due to discrimination/cultural/social barriers for training and work inclusion

+

policy recc: - supported employment (environmental) - cognitive behavioural/computer-assisted therapies (cognitive) - vocational rehabilitation programs (human capital)

+
+
+

4.13 Taukobong2016

+

(narrative?) review of effects of dimensions of female ‘empowerment’ on health outcomes and development outcomes, such as access to and use of financial services

+

main findings: - gender inequalities highly contextual (and intersectional), requires identification of variations at start of interventions where inequalities exist, overlap and work as barriers to its implementation - strong association with improved outcomes across multiple outcome sectors: control over income/assets/resources, decision-making power, education - relation with health/family planning outcomes: mobility, personal safety, equitable interpersonal relationships

+
+
+

4.14 Ruhindwa2016

+

(narrative) review of barriers to workforce inclusion (paid/volunteer work) for people with disabilities; summary of findings

+

main findings: - “effective practice takes an inclusive approach and allows clients to take ownership of solutions in relation to addressing the challenges they experience in the employment sector”

+

policy recc: - employment support practices - campaigns to encourage disclosing disability

+
+
+

4.15 Kirsh2016

+

review of factors influencing LM outcomes of supported employment interventions for people with disabilities

+

main findings: - most employment support literature only looks at overall efficacy of interventions, with little prudence for intersectional inequality variations

+

inequalities: - men more likely to be employed (argue possibly due to manual labour of many jobs) - older people less likely to be employed (age+, change-) - older women more likely to be employed than men - education very important in employment outcomes

+

policy recc: - vocational rehabilitation

+
+
+

4.16 Hastbacka2016

+

scoping review of linkages between societal participation and people with disabilities for identity of participant, type of participation, type of facilitators and barriers; focus on European countries (n=32, between 2012-2013)

+

main findings: strongest focus on labour market participation; social participation viewed through lens of disabled people as one group instead of intersectional

+

main barriers: financial factors, attitudes, health issues, unemployment main facilitators: legislation and disability policies; support from people in close contact with disabled people, attitudes in society and employment opportunities for people with disabilities

+
+
+

4.17 Nevala2015

+

systematic review looking at effectiveness of workplace accommodation (vocational counselling/guidance, education/self-advocacy, help of others, changes in work schedules, work organization, special transportation) on employment, work ability, cost-benefit, rtw (n=11)

+

main findings: - moderate evidence that employment among physically disabled persons promoted by: vocational counselling/guidance, education/self-advocacy, help of others, changes in work schedules, work organisation, special transportation - low evidence that rtw increased for physical/cognitive disabilities by: liaison (btw employer and other professionals), education, work aids, work techniques

+

barrier/facilitators: self-advocacy, support of employer and community, amount of training/counselling, flexibility of work schedules/organisation

+
+
+
+

5 Database Query

+
+

5.1 Other reviews queried databases

+

from Pinto et al. (2021):

+
    +
  • Scopus
  • +
  • Embase
  • +
  • Medline
  • +
  • CINAHL
  • +
  • WOS
  • +
  • ProQuest
  • +
  • EBSCOhost Research DB
  • +
  • PsycINFO
  • +
+
+
+

5.2 WOS

+
TS=
+(
+    (
+        work OR
+        labour OR
+        production of goods OR
+        provision of services OR
+        own-use OR
+        use by others OR
+        of working age OR
+        for pay OR
+        for profit OR
+        remuneration OR
+        market transactions
+    ) AND
+    (
+        (
+            own-use OR
+            employment OR
+            unpaid trainee OR
+            volunteer OR
+            other work activities OR
+            wage-employed OR
+            self-employed OR
+            formal work OR
+            informal work OR
+            domestic work OR
+            care work OR
+            unpaid work
+        ) OR
+        (
+            employment outcomes OR
+            labour rights OR
+            equality of oppoertunity OR
+            equality of outcome OR
+            labour force participationOR
+            labour force exit OR
+            job quality OR
+            career advancement OR
+            hours worked OR
+            wage OR
+            salary OR
+            return to work
+        )
+    )
+) AND
+
+TS=
+(
+    (
+        intervention OR
+        policy OR
+        participation OR
+        targeting/targeted OR
+        distributive OR
+        redistributive
+    )
+    AND
+    (
+        (
+            support for childcare OR
+            labour rights OR
+            minimum wage OR
+            collective bargaining OR
+            business sustainability promotion OR
+            work-life balance promotion OR
+            equal pay for work of equal value OR
+            removal of (discriminatory) law OR
+            law reformation OR
+            guaranteed income OR
+            universal basic income OR
+            provision of living wage OR
+            maternity leave
+        )
+        OR
+        (
+            cash benefits OR
+            services in kind OR
+            green transition OR
+            infrastructure OR
+            digital infrastructure OR
+            quality of education OR
+            public service improvement OR
+            lowering of gender segregation OR
+            price stability intervention OR
+            extended social protection scheme OR
+            comprehensive social protection OR
+            sustainable social protection OR
+            supported employment OR
+            vocational rehabilitation
+        )
+        OR
+        (
+            credit programs OR
+            career guidance OR
+            vocational guidance OR
+            vocational counselling OR
+            counteracting of stereotypes OR
+            commuting subsidies OR
+            housing mobility programs OR
+            encouraging re-situation/migration OR
+            encouraging self-advocacy OR
+            cognitive behavioural therapy OR
+            computer-assisted therapy OR
+            work organization OR
+            special transportation
+        )
+    )
+) AND
+
+TS=
+(
+    (
+        inequality OR
+        inequalities OR
+        barriers OR
+        advantaged OR
+        disadvantaged OR
+        discriminated OR
+        disparity OR
+        disparities
+    )
+    NEAR/5
+    (
+        (
+            income OR
+            "Palma ratio" OR
+            "Gini coefficient" OR
+            class OR
+            fertility OR
+            "bottom percentile" OR
+            "top percentile"
+        )
+        OR
+        (
+            identity OR
+            demographic OR
+            gender OR
+            colour OR
+            beliefs OR
+            racial OR
+            ethnic OR
+            migrant OR
+            spatial OR
+            rural OR
+            urban OR
+            mega-cities OR
+            "small cities" OR
+            "peripheral cities" OR
+            age OR
+            nationality OR
+            ethnicity OR
+            "health status" OR
+            disability OR
+            characteristics
+        )
+    )
+)
+
+
+
+

6 Findings and Updates from query

+
+

6.1 Preliminary source pool

+
    +
  • initial query pool (no deduplication): 1643
  • +
  • snowballing pool (from 29 reviews): 530
  • +
+
+
+

6.2 Additional concept research

+
    +
  • utilizing Joanna Briggs Institute JBI Scoping Review methodology
  • +
+
+
+

6.3 Preliminary findings income

+
    +
  • potential drivers: (Zhuan2023) +
      +
    • inverted-U hypothesis (Kuznets, 1955)/ dual economy model (Lewis, 1954)
    • +
    • technological progress
    • +
    • globalization
    • +
    • deregulation/market-oriented reform
    • +
    • financialization
    • +
    • population aging
    • +
    • widening spatial inequality between subsistence/growth economy (i.e. dual economy)
    • +
    • growing gap to super-rich (top 1 percentile)
    • +
  • +
  • potential channels: +
      +
    • declining labor income share/ growing capital income share
    • +
    • widening skilled/non-skilled wage differentials
    • +
    • growing spatial inequality
    • +
    • limited taxation/transfer income redistribution
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

6.4 Potential additional search terms

+
    +
  • Matthew effect (lower socio-economic position households send fewer children to formal childcare in HIC)
  • +
  • issue: currently in many cases looking at health and health inequality outcomes
  • +
+
+
+

6.5 Issues raised by ILO

+
    +
  • only english: Query itself is English only. If Spanish/French fall into grid, may include
  • +
  • no purely qualitative: might prove too much; how to ensure rigour?
  • +
  • no pre-2000: Can include?
  • +
+
+
+
+

7 Relevant references

+
+
+Chang, Y.-S., Harger, L., Beake, S., & Bick, D. (2021). Women’s and EmployersExperiences and Views of Combining Breastfeeding with a Return to Paid Employment: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies. Journal of Midwifery Womens Health, 66(5), 641–655. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.13243 +
+
+DFI. (2023). A call to action to save SDG10. Development Finance International. +
+
+Finlay, J. E. (2021). Women’s reproductive health and economic activity: A narrative review. World Development, 139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105313 +
+
+ILO. (2002). Resolution on decent work and the informal economy. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2013). Resolution concerning statistics of work, employment and labour underutilization. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2015). Recommendation No. 204 concerning the Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2016). Women at Work Trends 2016. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2019). Working conditions in a global perspective. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2021a). Inequalities and the world of work. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2021b). Resolution concerning inequalities and the world of work. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2022a). Follow-up to the resolution concerning inequalities and the world of work: Comprehensive and integrated ILO strategy to reduce and prevent inequalities in the world of work. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2022b). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2022. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2023a). Guidelines concerning a statistical definition of informal employment. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2023b). The road to decent work for domestic workers. International Labour Organization. +
+
+ILO. (2023c). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2023. International Labour Organization. +
+
+Kalasa, B., Eloundou-Enyegue, P., & Giroux, S. C. (2021). Horizontal versus vertical inequalities: The relative significance of geography versus class in mapping subnational fertility. The Lancet Global Health, 9(6), e730–e731. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00171-6 +
+
+Lettieri, A., & Diez Villoria, E. (2017). A Systematization of the International Evidence Related to Labor Inclusion Barriers and Facilitators for People with Mental Illness A Review of Reviews. Sociologica-Italian Journal of Sociology on Line, 3. https://doi.org/10.2383/89515 +
+
+Nevala, N., Pehkonen, I., Koskela, I., Ruusuvuori, J., & Anttila, H. (2015). Workplace Accommodation Among Persons with Disabilities: A Systematic Review of Its Effectiveness and Barriers or Facilitators. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 25(2), 432–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-014-9548-z +
+
+Perez, V., Hernandez-Solano, A., Teruel, G., & Reyes, M. (2022). The changing role of employment and alternative income sources among the urban poor: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 14(1), 124–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2022.2082444 +
+
+Pinto, A. D., Perri, M., Pedersen, C. L., Aratangy, T., Hapsari, A. P., & Hwang, S. W. (2021). Exploring different methods to evaluate the impact of basic income interventions: A systematic review. International Journal for Equity in Health, 20(142), 142. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-021-01479-2 +
+
+Ravallion, M. (2018). Inequality and Globalization: A Review Essay. Journal of Economic Literature, 56(2), 620–642. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20171419 +
+
+Silvaggi, F., Leonardi, M., Raggi, A., Eigenmann, M., Mariniello, A., Silvani, A., Lamperti, E., & Schiavolin, S. (2020). Employment and Work Ability of Persons With Brain Tumors: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.571191 +
+
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/05-final_paper/notes.pdf b/05-final_paper/notes.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2459981 Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/notes.pdf differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.docx b/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.docx new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d26e686 Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.docx differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.html b/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac49316 --- /dev/null +++ b/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.html @@ -0,0 +1,3810 @@ + + + + + + + + + +presentation_summary + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ +

+ + + +
+

1 Text summary of review search and extraction process

+
+

1.1 WHAT we search for and WHY

+

We are undertaking a systematic scoping review mapping out the current academic state of the art for policies explicitly or implicitly aimed at reducing inequalities in the world of work. To arrive at a mapping which is as unbiased as possible, we closely follow the scoping review methodology proposed by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) and extended by Pham et al. (2014), as well as those points from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA, 2020) guidelines that are applicable to scoping reviews.

+

The goal of this review strategy is to capture any possible coherent mechanisms of policy-making which positively influence the reduction of inequalities in the world of work and reach some measure of clarity on the extent and robustness of evidence in these areas.

+

ACCOMPANYING SLIDE Section 2.1

+

To achieve this, we follow the general typologies formulated by ILO for the world of work to find a definition of work, various forms of work and labour market adjacent outcomes to be measured. These provide one ‘cluster’ of terms for the world of work which will later be used for the actual search strategy. A second cluster is provided by terms considering a variety of terms posing a definition of a policy, as well as possible implementations of it in an institutional perspective, a structural perspective and the perspective of personal or collective agency. The last cluster is made up of terms defining the concept of inequality, and terms describing dimensions of vertical and horizontal inequalities.

+

These three clusters, taken together, then describe all domains which are of special interest in finding policies to reduce inequalities in the world of work.

+

ACCOMPANYING SLIDE Section 2.2

+

They, together with specific inclusion criteria, provide the semantic baseline for the search: the terms and concepts for which studies will first be searched and later included or excluded from consideration in the actual search implementation.

+
+ +
+

1.3 HOW we extract from it

+

Extraction with the help of the extraction tool follows a strict grid of relevant data to extract from each source identified and screened as relevant. The extraction data to be pulled from each relevant source can be categorized into 4 overall dimensions: publication data, contextual data, results, and statistical data.

+

ACCOMPANYING SLIDE Section 2.7

+

Publication data captures the relevant information to uniquely identify the study under review, as well as identify its publication type and location. Results capture the primary of findings of a study, along with any suggested channels or mechanisms of operation, the theory they are basing them on if provided, and any limitations. They also capture the type of intervention under review as well as the types of inequalities, as well as any specific outcome measures.

+

Contextual data represents all information given within the source as to the intervention’s respective required contexts: what the primary country (or countries) of analysis were, which world region and country income class they represent, which target group was targeted by the intervention if any, which dataset the study at hand made use of if provided and importantly when and for how long the intervention and its study were undertaken.

+

Statistical data captures all study findings of statistical relevance: its sample size, level of representativeness, significance, but and if it is using relative or absolute indicators. It also captures the design (whether it was undertaken experimentally or observationally) and the methods used by the study.

+
+
+
+

2 Bullet-points / Possible Slides

+
+

2.1 Term cluster areas

+
    +
  • world of work cluster: +
      +
    • Definition of work
    • +
    • Forms of work
    • +
    • Labour market adjacent outcomes
    • +
  • +
  • policy cluster: +
      +
    • definition of policy
    • +
    • institutional implementations
    • +
    • structural implementations
    • +
    • implementations of personal/collective agency
    • +
  • +
  • inequality cluster: +
      +
    • definition of inequalities
    • +
    • vertical inequalities
    • +
    • horizontal inequalities
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

2.2 Inequalities term cluster example

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
DefintionVertical inequalityHorizontal inequality
inequalityincomeidentity
barrierclassdemographic
advantagedGinigender
disadvantagedPalmacolour
discriminatedTheilbeliefs
disparityAtkinsonracial
horizontal inequalitylog deviationethnic
vertical inequalityfertilitymigrant
bottom percentilespatial
top percentilerural
urban
small cities
peripherial cities
age
nationality
ethnicity
health status
disability
characteristics
+
+
+

2.3 Inclusion criteria

+ +++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ParameterInclusion criteriaExclusion criteria
Time framestudy published in or after 2000study published before 2000
Study typeprimary researchopinion piece, editorial, commentary, news article, literature review
Study recencymost recent publication of studygray literature superseded by white literature publication
Study focusinequality or labour market outcomes as primary outcome (dependent variable)neither inequality nor labour market outcomes as dependent variable
policy measure or strategy as primary intervention (independent variable)no policy measure/strategy as intervention or relationship unclear
specifically relates to some dimension of world of workexists outside world of work for both independent and dependent variables
focus on dimension of inequality in analysisno focus on mention of inequality in analysis
+
+ +
+

2.5 Identification

+
    +
  • Database sources: +
      +
    • World of Science (Extended Corpus): white literature
    • +
    • Google Scholar: possibly relevant grey literature
    • +
  • +
  • Snowballing: +
      +
    • starting from existing relevant reviews contained in initial database results & additional relevant ones
    • +
    • all contained citations extracted and added to identified sources
    • +
  • +
  • Deduplication: +
      +
    • automated deduplication for exact source matches
    • +
    • manual deduplication for inexact matches or superseding literature
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

2.6 Screening

+
    +
  • Repeated sorting out of irrelevant literature: +
      +
    • repeated process from far-reading to close-reading (title, abstract, full-text)
    • +
    • using inclusion/exclusion criteria for each round of separations
    • +
  • +
  • Pre-sorting of literature with keyword tagging: +
      +
    • reason for exclusion (title, abstract, superseded, or note for full-text reason)
    • +
    • types of inequalities, types of policies, types of outcomes measured
    • +
  • +
+
+
+

2.7 Extraction

+
    +
  • Extraction of relevant data for current review: +
      +
    • from all sources identified as relevant during full-text screening
    • +
    • using extraction tool to unify extracted data
    • +
  • +
  • Relevant data: +
      +
    • Publication information (author, year, title, publisher, publication type)
    • +
    • Contextual data (country, region, income class, period & length of analysis, target group, dataset)
    • +
    • Results data (intervention, inequalities, outcome measures, main findings, channels, limitations)
    • +
    • Statistical data (sample size, representativeness, methods, significance, absolute indicator)
    • +
  • +
+
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.pdf b/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..37e997b Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/presentation_summary.pdf differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/scoping_review.docx b/05-final_paper/scoping_review.docx new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3069a2a Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/scoping_review.docx differ diff --git a/05-final_paper/scoping_review.html b/05-final_paper/scoping_review.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e12cbc --- /dev/null +++ b/05-final_paper/scoping_review.html @@ -0,0 +1,7115 @@ + + + + + + + + + +Addressing Inequalities in the World of Work + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+
+

Addressing Inequalities in the World of Work

+

Scoping Review on ‘What Works’

+
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+
+Code +
# load relevant studies
+from src import data
+
+# load zotero-based metadata: citations and uses
+zot_df = pd.DataFrame([
+    [
+        entry["doi"] if "doi" in entry.fields_dict else None,
+        entry["times-cited"] if "times-cited" in entry.fields_dict else None,
+        entry["usage"] if "usage" in entry.fields_dict else None,
+        entry["keywords"] if "keywords" in entry.fields_dict else None,
+    ]
+    for entry in bib_sample.entries
+], columns = ["doi", "cited", "usage", "keywords"]).drop_duplicates("doi").set_index("doi")
+
+# Add WB country grouping definitions (income group, world region)
+WB_COUNTRY_GROUPS_FILE = Path(f"{SUPPLEMENTARY_DATA}/wb-country-groupings.xlsx").resolve()
+df_country_groups = pd.concat([pd.read_excel(WB_COUNTRY_GROUPS_FILE), pd.DataFrame(data={'Economy':['global'],'Code':['WLD'],'Region':['Europe & Central Asia;South Asia;North America;East Asia & Pacific;Sub-Saharan Africa;Europe & Central Asia;Latin America & Caribbean'], 'Income group':[''], 'Lending category':['']})]).set_index("Economy")
+
+def countries_to_regions(countries:str):
+    res = set()
+    for c in countries.replace(" ;", ";").replace("; ",";").split(";"):
+        if c in df_country_groups.index:
+            region = df_country_groups.at[c,'Region']
+            res.add(region)
+    return ";".join(res)
+
+def countries_to_income_groups(countries:str):
+    res = set()
+    for c in countries.replace(" ;", ";").replace("; ",";").split(";"):
+        if c in df_country_groups.index:
+            region = df_country_groups.at[c,'Income group']
+            res.add(region)
+    return ";".join(res)
+
+
+bib_df = (data.from_yml(f"{PROCESSED_DATA}")
+    .assign(
+        doi=lambda _df: _df["uri"].str.extract(r"https?://(?:dx\.)?doi\.org/(.*)", expand=False),
+        zot_cited=lambda _df: _df["doi"].map(zot_df["cited"]),
+        zot_usage=lambda _df: _df["doi"].map(zot_df["usage"]),
+        zot_keywords=lambda _df: _df["doi"].map(zot_df["keywords"]),
+        date = lambda _df: pd.to_datetime(_df["year"], format="%Y"),
+        year = lambda _df: _df["date"].dt.year,
+        region = lambda _df: _df["country"].map(countries_to_regions),
+        income_group = lambda _df: _df["country"].map(countries_to_income_groups),
+    )
+    .query("year >= 2000")
+)
+zot_df = None
+df_country_groups = None
+
+
+ +
+
+

Introduction

+

This study presents a systematic scoping review of the current literature concerning inequalities in the world of work. It attempts to trace the main mechanisms and channels of the interventions employed in the global world of work to reduce its inequalities, while simultaneously investigating the methodologies and indicators used in evidence-based research on them to systematically elaborate the current state of the art on inequalities in the world of work.

+

The following section presents a typology of policies that directly or indirectly tackle inequalities in the WoW both within the labour market and outside this domain (e.g. education policy). The section also makes an attempt to clearly identify the theoretical mechanisms and channels through which policies are expected to impact inequalities in forms of work and ultimate labour market outcomes.

+

The ILO has a policy approach to reducing inequalities in the world of work segmented into five major focus areas: employment creation, access to education, labour rights protection, formalization, gender equality and diversity, and social protection (ILO, 2022b). Each of these areas in turn rests on a variety of more specific emphases which further describe the potential implemented policy measures.

+

The rest of the study is structured as follows: Section 2 will introduce the world of work, as well as the ILO’s approach to inequalities within it, and provide a variety of other recent approaches to make sense of inequalities in the world of work. Section 3 will then introduce the method applied in the scoping review of this study, before introducing the initial identified literature as a coherent sample. Section 4 will synthesize findings on a variety of intervention found in the literature, organized by general policy area of intervention pursued. Section 5 will then provide a brief discussion on these findings from the perspective of individual inequalities, the interventions found to reduce them, and resulting policy implications, before Section 6 briefly concludes.

+
+
+

The world of work

+

The policy areas and their respective focus perspectives are based in the conceptual understanding of the world of work, following the definition of work being activities performed by persons of any sex and age producing goods or providing services for “economic units [which] can be allocated mutually exclusively to one of the following sectors:” the formal sector, the informal sector, or the community and household own-use sector (ILO, 2023b, p. 6). This is the broader understanding of work which specifically separates itself from a more narrow conception of those in employment who are engaging in “production for pay or profit”, whether for the informal or the formal market economy (see especially ILO, 2023b, Point 18ff). The key differentiations for these concepts are founded on an understanding of the production of goods or provision of services, as well as the distinctions between use by others for ultimate own-use and that of working for pay and/or profit – that is, as part of a market transaction in exchange for remuneration or in the form of profits derived from the goods or services.

+

Whether these services or goods are produced in what is defined as the informal economy, the formal economy or under informal employment outside the informal sector is, for the general encapsulation of no importance – they occur in the world of work. Here, conceptually, it should be captured under one of the five mutually exclusive forms of work (ILO, 2023d, p. 4, Point 7c) to be understood as: own-use production work, performing “any activity to produce goods or provide services for own final use” (ILO, 2013, p. 5); employment work comprising those performing work for others in exchange for pay or profit introduced above; unpaid trainee work, performing “any unpaid activity to produce goods or provide services […] to acquire workplace experience or skills” (ILO, 2013, p. 7); and volunteer work, that being “any unpaid, non-compulsory activity to produce goods or provide services for others” (ILO, 2013, p. 8).

+

Any activity falling under work as defined above on the one hand, but not under any of these forms of work on the other, is instead designated as other work activities in the following considerations. The key concepts between these categories come down to a varying intensity of participation, the distinction of working for pay and/or profit mentioned above, whether it is for ultimate own-use or the use by others, and its compulsory nature.

+

The ILO has a policy approach to reducing inequalities in the world of work segmented into five major focus areas: employment creation, access to education, labour rights protection, formalization, gender equality and diversity, and social protection. Each of these areas in turn rests on a variety of more specific emphases which further describe the potential implemented policy measures. An exemplary typology of general policy area, related specified policy focus and related focus if any can be found in Table 1.

+
+ + +++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 1: ILO focus areas for inequality reduction
area of policyfocusrelated
employment creationpro-employment framework
gender-transformative framework
promotion of business sustainabilityproductivity increases
reduction in productivity gaps
promotion of digital infrastructuretechnology for decent work
reducing digital divide
access to educationquality of education/training/skills developmentgreen transition
relevance of education/training/skills developmentdigital transition
gender-transformative career guidance
improvements of public services/social protection
work-life balancejuggle paid work and family care
targeted support for disadvantaged groupstargeted education
labour rights protectionpromotion of rights for all workerscollective bargaining systems
minimum wage
inclusive labour market institutions
equal pay for work of equal value
wage transparency
formalizationequality-driven approach to formalizationgender-responsive
increase decent work in formal economycountry-tailored
absorb informal workers / economic unitscomprehensive
non-discriminatory
gender equalityremoval of discriminatory practiceremoval of stereotypes
diversitypromotion of equality of treatmentremoval of discriminatory law
promotion of equality of opportunity
data collection improvementsgender-focus
occupational gender segregationage-focus
unequal pay for work of equal valuedisability-focus
gender-based violencerace-focus
gender-based harassmentethnicity-focus
gender unequal division of unpaid care workmigrant status-focus
social protectionextend reach of social protection schemes
reach those not adequately protected
ensure access to social protectioncomprehensive social protection
adequate social protection
sustainable social protection
+
+

Source: Authors’ elaboration based on ILO (2022b).

+
+

Inequalities in the world of work

+

Inequalities in the world of work have to be fundamentally conceptualized along two axes: On the one hand, vertical inequality captures the “income inequality between all households in a country” (ILO, 2021b). Measurements of vertical inequalities is a perspective which focuses primarily on incomes as data, with debate of top income percentiles versus the remaining body of people often posing the primary area of debate (ILO, 2021a). Horizontal inequalities, on the other hand, occur when “some groups within the population find themselves disadvantaged and discriminated against on the basis of their visible identity, for example their gender, colour or beliefs, among others” (ILO, 2021a).

+

Importantly, these inequalities do not act in a vacuum but create an interplay through overlaps and accumulations which take on their own driving dynamics for people belonging to multiple disadvantaged groups, captured in the idea of inequality’s intersectionality (ILO, 2022b). Here, especially horizontal inequalities may be hard to disentangle for impact finding, an important aspect of effective rigorous analysis in quantitative studies.

+

Thus, for a study on inequalities, or in turn a study on policies aimed at reducing inequalities in the world of work to be one of rigorous analysis, it must clearly define the type of policy taken as its object of analysis (its independent variable) as well as the types of inequalities targeted for reduction through the respective policy and measured as channels of impact. Ultimately, then, the individual outcome measures need to be clearly specified and disentangled, most clearly reflecting in labour market outcome measures (dependent variables). Only then can the targeted inequality be delineated as a clear channel.

+

In targeting an increase in equality, there are then two approaches to take: either levelling the playing field so that characteristics beyond an individual’s control can not influence their future perspectives, nor limit the potential of the powers they possess, through achieving equality of opportunity; or strive for an equality of outcomes, in factual observed resulting (in-)equalities. As the ILO established, such a focus on equality of outcomes can be of great importance since “high levels of inequality today tend to reduce social mobility tomorrow” (ILO, 2021a), making it that much more difficult to ultimately ensure equality of opportunity for following generation. The key concepts here are thus the distinction of within-group and between-group inequalities, their overlapping characteristics, as well as policies enabling an equality of opportunity or of outcome.

+

Income inequality is still the primary lens of inequality that many approaches target, as well as the main focus point of many inequality measurements such as the Gini coefficient or ratios such as the Palma ratio (DFI, 2023). Following the ILO, “labour income is the main source of income for most households in the world [thus] unequal access to work and working poverty are major drivers of inequalities” (ILO, 2021b). Income inequality, here, can be affected by a wide set of factors: status in employment, forms of work, the sector of activity, the respective occupation, type of enterprise, type of contract for those in waged work, and the status of formality among others (ILO, 2019). Income inequality should also not be seen as separate from, nor standing above, other inequalities, but closely linked to other inequalities. As the ILO states, “income inequality, inequality of employment outcomes more generally and inequality of opportunities are intimately related” (ILO, 2022b). At the same time the exact linkages of these factors remain under-analysed, which is the reason why the channels of inequalities and the policies to reduce them will pose a fruitful space of analysis for this research.

+

While income inequality holds a primary position of importance for many analyses from a perspective of quantity, it should not be understood as carrying more importance qualitatively for itself compared to other inequalities but rather be understood “like a prism, which reveals many other forms of inequality, including those generated in the world of work” (ILO, 2021a, p. 13). It is the primary measure of vertical inequality, however, with other inequalities describing primarily the concept of horizontal inequality.

+

Here, of primary focus for the ILO, and many studies on inequality in the world of work, is gender inequality. It describes the inequalities that arise because of an individual’s gender. Generally, while the type and extend of other inequalities does vary substantially by global location and country, “gender inequalities, despite some progress over the past decades, remain persistent and pervasive” (ILO, 2021b).

+

Following a report on the gendered make-up of work globally, women are making up a larger part of those in underemployment, they primarily make up the service sector – a rising trend – while suffering a persistently substantial wage gap, tend to work shorter hours in employment but in turn have longer working days when including unpaid work, as well as contributing disproportionally to family work (ILO, 2016). The domestic area of work is also dominated by women, who make up 76.2 per cent of it, in addition to domestic work being overwhelmingly informal labour globally (ILO, 2023c).

+

These inequalities in the world of work in turn also reflect in women being hindered in accessing adequate education, training, as well as the possibility for lifelong learning, and furthermore access to quality jobs, housing, mobility, capital, land, and adequate social protection – disparities which, on the basis of deeply rooted inequalities of gender roles, education and places of residence remain largely static if not on the rise. These channels and outcomes, viewed intersectionally, must thus represent the primary lens through which to disentangle the gender inequality in the world of work today.

+

There are additional socio-demographic inequalities beyond gender which are based on the innate, most often visible, identification of a person. These are made up of, though not limited to, ethnic and racial inequalities, those based on religion and beliefs, based on a person’s status as a migrant, a person’s age, sex, or disabilities (ILO, 2021a). For example, young people generally fare significantly worse in labour markets shown through outcomes such as a higher incidence of temporary employment throughout youth and the young labour force (ILO, 2019, 2023a).

+

As a report on the global conditions of work established, over “7% of workers felt they had been discriminated against in the 12 months prior to the survey on grounds of sex, race, religion, age, nationality, disability or sexual orientation” (ILO, 2019) in the EU alone, making socio-demographic inequalities a prevalent and important to tackle angle of horizontal inequality. Here, it will be especially important to correctly disentangle individual sources or contributing characteristics from each other in finding their linkages to relevant outcomes.

+

Another form of inequality are spatial inequalities, those that arise because of an individual’s location relative to other. These inequalities exist primarily between different regions of a country: those between urbanity and rurality or more peripheral areas, but also between richer and poorer regions and, as the ILO established, can even lead to a ‘growing sense of fractured societies’ (ILO, 2021b).

+

One of the channels this can manifest itself is through an unequal access to decent work opportunities or economic opportunities more generally, an unequal access to financial resources, quality public services or even overall access to an essential social service infrastructure and digital infrastructure, as well as quality access to education or relevant training. For spatial inequalities it will be especially important to take note of locally bound differences versus more generalizable results, with the dimensions and contributing factors to its outcomes potentially varying widely between different geographies and national contexts.

+

In mentioning unequal access to quality education or public infrastructure another important dimension of inequalities becomes highlighted: the dimension of pre-existing inequalities, that is, inequalities which exist prior to an individual’s interaction with the labour market and, though closely intertwined with socio-demographic inequalities, will prove useful to analytically differentiate between. A differentiation which becomes especially important with a view on the inter-generational effects of inequality, highlighted in recognizing the difference between equality of opportunity and outcome. The level of education, an individual’s poverty, productivity on the labour market and similar inequalities in opportunities are often the result of long-running pre-existing inequalities such as unequal access to health services, education, lacking property rights or clear ownership of assets, the lack of formal recognition as an individual, no access to formal banking (ILO, 2021a). Understanding such channels becomes difficult if not taking pre-existing inequalities into account as a separate category of inequality and long-term impacting channel.

+

Addressing these inequalities, in turn, is just as important to reducing inequalities within the labour market (as well as beyond) since they do play such a role for intergenerational social mobility and their impacts can be seen, once again, reflecting in the prism of subsequent income inequality. For pre-existing inequalities, it will be especially important to understand the often delayed and more opaque nature of the roots of many outcomes, with channel being more difficult to identify and clearly label – especially in an intersectional context. These five dimensions of inequalities — income inequality, gender inequality, socio-demographic inequality, spatial inequality and pre-existing inequalities — will thus provide the categorical anchors along which the reviewed studies will be analysed for their policy effects, each with a slightly different focus in linkages between inequality, policy and outcome.

+
+
+

Existing reviews: alternative approaches

+

Aside from the general typology by the ILO introduced above, there are a variety of differing approaches to the interplay of inequalities and outcomes, outlined in the following section.

+ +

Chaudhuri et al. (2021) conduct a systematic review to look at coping strategies and the effects of food insecurity, often through poverty, on social and health outcomes for women and children. They find that one of the primary non-food coping strategies for women is to look for outdoor employment, mostly farm work, which can in turn lead to what the authors argue as time poverty when their time for childcare or personal nutrition is now cut short. This in turn can, in combination with food-based coping strategies such as food rationing (in size or frequency), nutritional switches or food sharing, lead to negative health outcomes for children including disrupted socio-cognitive development as well as coping through dropping out of school, thereby furthering the rift of pre-existing inequalities.

+ +

Finlay (2021) looks at the effects of female women’s reproductive health on female labour force participation, especially career advancement, job quality and hours worked, to find a variety of responses differing between low-income, middle-income and high-income countries. The main findings are that in low-income countries because of the prevalence of informal work, women are forced to adopt individual strategies of balancing child rearing and labour force participation through job type selection, reliance on other women in the household for child care, or birth spacing. In middle-income countries, women have to juggle child rearing and labour force participation with an overall income inequality; here, early childbearing or lone motherhood especially can perpetuate poverty. In high-income countries, social protection policies can assist in balancing child rearing and work but many underlying issues of gender inequality remain. Throughout all countries, childbearing significantly interrupts career advancement.

+ +

Chang et al. (2021) use a qualitative systematic review to look at the linkages of breast-feeding and returning to paid employment for women and identify multiple barriers provided through inequalities discouraging continued breast-feeding after return to employment — an experience often experienced as physically and emotionally difficult and potentially providing a barrier to full labour force participation. Aside from individual motivation and support from employers, colleagues, and family members, women highlighted the importance of having workplace legislation in place to facilitate breast-feeding during employment, as well as access to convenient child care. The review concludes indicating remaining gender and employment inequalities in accessing and receiving the support needed: gender role expectations viewing women as responsible for domestic work or childcare, with shorter maternity leave further discouraging breast-feeding especially of women not in managerial roles.

+ +

Looking strictly at the impact of basic income interventions on labour market, health, educational, housing and other outcomes, Pinto et al. (2021) find that, while workforce participation is the primary outcome in most studies, the evaluations have shifted over time to include a wider array of outcomes, perhaps reflecting an understanding of lower health and social care spending offsetting some of the basic income investments. Most of the studies investigating basic income perspectives focus on advanced economies such as the US.

+ +

Undertaking a systematic review to find the effects of brain tumours in individuals on their labour market outcomes, Silvaggi (2020) find an impact of neuropsychological functioning on work productivity, issues for their process of returning to work, and often an exit from employment (job loss) for long-term survivors of brain tumours While the channels are primarily viewed as stemming from the high short-term mortality and depressive symptoms or cognitive deficits, environmental barriers are identified as one channel as well, with the review ending in the policy recommendation of increased vocational rehabilitation for affected persons.

+ +

De Paz-Banez et al. (2020) use a systematic review of empirical studies to look at the effects of universal basic income on labour supply to find that, with no evidence of significant reductions in labour supply, instead the labour supply would increase globally among adults, men, women, young and old. The insignificant reductions they found they assumed functional, since they were in the categories of: children, elderly, sick, people with disabilities, women with young children, young people continuing their studies and were offset by the otherwise increased supply.

+ +

Looking at the impact of gender on the employment outcomes for young disabled adults, Lindsay et al. (2018) find that while youth with disabilities are half as likely to be employed, gender inequalities may play a compounding role with men being more likely to be in employment than women, working longer hours and having higher wages. The identified channels here are different social supports, gender role expectations, as well as women’s lower job expectations and overprotection from parents or guardians discouraging their independence.

+ +

Kumari (2018) looks at the relationship of both economic growth and gender disparity on the labour supply in investigating their effects on female work participation. They see a U-shaped participation rate and some evidence of cross-sector gender pay disparity which is affected by demographic factors such as migration, marriage, child care and fertility, as well as economic factors such as per capita income, unemployment, infrastructure and the prevalence of non-farm jobs. Ultimately, they argue that the labour supply inequalities are based on inequality between the sexes and, while regulatory measures such as adequate family and childcare policies, tax regimes and the presence of subsidized healthcare help, changes to the female labour force participation fundamentally require the replacement of such a traditional value system itself.

+ +

While undertaking a systematic review concerning the effects of adopting technology on employment in LICs or LMICs, Ugur and Mitra (2017) find when adoption favours product innovation positive effects are somewhat likely. They also find, however, that existing income inequalities can make the possible positive effects of its adoption more ambiguous and may in turn widen the rift of demand for skilled versus unskilled labour. Lastly, policies favouring green transition technologies may in turn reduce income inequality, providing another possible linkage.

+ +

Lettieri and Diez Villoria (2017) find that hiding mental illness is one of the primary strategies for improved employment outcomes in a meta-review looking at barriers to labour market inclusion for people mental disabilities. This act of concealment of identity and self-stigmatization can seem necessary, they argue, due to the channels of workplace prejudices, perceiving them missing skills, as dangerous or unpredictable, or seeing the act of their hiring as charity due to expectations of lower productivity; but also due to discriminatory hiring practices and pre-existing inequalities leading to them being lower-skilled individuals due to prior discrimination, cultural and social barriers to training and work inclusion. Here, relevant policies include interventions of supported employment (removing an environmental barrier), cognitive behavioural or computer-assisted therapies (cognitive barrier) or vocational rehabilitation programmes (human capital).

+ +

Taukobong et al. (2016) review various dimensions of female empowerment and their effects on a variety of health and development outcomes, including the access and use of financial services for the poor. They find that, aside from gender inequalities being both highly contextual and intersectional, especially the channels of control over one’s income, assets, resources, having decision-making power and individual education affected these outcomes across all dimensions, reflecting their position as channels of gender inequality. Additionally, personal mobility, safety and equitable interpersonal relationships are associated with some health and family planning outcomes. Ultimately, the review shows that due to the contextual nature, interventions need to identify the variations of inequality at their start, see where inequalities exist, overlap and work as barriers for an effective implementation.

+ +

Ruhindwa et al. (2016) review a variety of barriers to adequate workforce inclusion for people with disabilities, proposing an inclusive approach in which the individual is given space to take ownership of the solutions addressing challenges experienced in the employment sector. Similarly, they view hiring discrimination and workplace stigmatization as the largest channels through which inequalities of disability manifest themselves. They see especially employment support practices, with focus on enabling this, as relevant policy strategies, as well as national campaigns to ease disclosing one’s disability in the labour market.

+ +

In looking at the various dimensions affecting the labour market outcomes of supported employment interventions for people with disabilities, Kirsh (2016) finds that most literature still only regards the overall efficacy of the interventions without taking into account compounding intersectional characteristics. They find that generally men are more likely to find employment through the intervention, possibly resting on current programmes focus on manual labour, as well as younger people generally finding better employment. This highlights the intersectional nature of inequalities between disability, gender and age. One relevant policy they see is that of vocational rehabilitation.

+ +

Hastbacka et al. (2016) undertake a scoping review to find the linkages between societal participation and people with disabilities, looking at specific interventions for the identity of participants, types of participation analysed, and channels of effect. They see most literature focusing on labour market participation and viewing disabled people as coherent group instead of intersectional. The main channels of inequality providing barriers they identify are financial factors, attitudes of discrimination, health issues and unemployment, while the main driving mechanisms identified are legislation and disability policies, as well as support from people in close contact with disabled people and attitudes in society and the hiring process.

+ +

In a systematic review looking at the effectiveness of workplace accommodations on employment and return to work, Nevala et al. (2015) find few studies with rigorous design leading to conclusive evidence. They do find moderate evidence that employment in disability can be increased through workplace accommodations such as vocational counselling or guidance, education, self-advocacy, positive perception and help by others. There is also low evidence for return to work being increased by education, work aids and techniques and cooperation between employers and other professionals (such as occupational health care, or service providers).

+
+
+
+

Methodology and data

+ +
+

The search protocol

+

This section will discuss the systematic scoping review methodology that is proposed to conduct the review of the literature on policy interventions that are expected to address inequalities in forms of work and labour market outcomes. Unlike purely systematic reviews which typically focus on specific policy questions and interventions, systematic scoping reviews focus on a wider spectrum of policies, where different study designs and research questions can be investigated. Since scoping reviews allow both broad and in-depth analyses, they are the most appropriate rigorous method to make a synthesis of the current evidence in this area (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005).

+

The scoping review allows broad focus to be given to a subject for which no unified path with clear edges has been laid out yet by prior reviews, as remains the case with policies targeting inequalities in the world of work. It does so through a breadth-first approach through a search protocol which favours working through a large body of literature to subsequently move toward a depth-favouring approach once the literature has been sufficiently delimited. Its purpose, clearly mapping a body of literature on a (broad) topic area, is thereby useful on its own or in combination with a systematic approach (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). With an increasingly adopted approach in recent years, with rigorous dichotomy of inclusion and exclusion criteria it provides a way of charting the relevance of literature related to its overall body that strives to be free of influencing biases which could affect the skew of the resulting literature sample (Pham et al., 2014).

+ +

The search protocol will be carried out based on the introduced areas of policies as well as the possible combination of definitions and outcomes in the WoW. For each dimension of definitions, a cluster containing possible utilized terms will be created, that is for: definitions of work and labour, forms of work, definitions of inequality, forms of vertical and forms of horizontal inequalities, labour market outcomes, and definitions of policy. Each of the clusters contains synonymous terms as well as term-adjacent phrase combinations which are in turn used to refine or broaden the search scope to best encapsulate each respective cluster, based on the above definitions.

+ +

The search protocol then follows a three-staged process of execution: identification, screening and extraction. First, in identification, the above categorizations are combined through Boolean operators to conduct a search through the database repository Web of Science. While the resulting study pools could be screened for in multiple languages, the search queries themselves are passed to the databases in English-language only. Relevant results are then complemented through the adoption of a ‘snowballing’ technique, which analyses an array of published reviews for their reference lists to find cross-references of potentially missing literature.

+

To identify potential studies and create an initial sample, relevant terms for the clusters of world of work, inequality and policy interventions have been extracted from the existing reviews as well as the ILO definitions. Identified terms comprising the world of work can be found in Table 2, with the search query requiring a term from the general column and one other column.

+
+
+Code +
terms_wow = pd.read_csv("02-data/supplementary/terms_wow.csv")
+md(tabulate(terms_wow.fillna(""), showindex=False, headers="keys", tablefmt="grid"))
+
+
+
+ + +++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 2: World of work term cluster
GeneralForms of workLabour market outcomes
workown-useemployment outcomes
labouremploymentlabour rights
production of goodsunpaid traineeequality of opportunity
provision of servicesvolunteerequality of outcome
own-useother work activitieslabour force participation (Pinto et al., 2021)
use by otherswage-employedlabour force exit (Silvaggi et al., 2020)
of working ageself-employedjob quality (Finlay, 2021)
for payformal workcareer advancement (Finlay, 2021)
for profitinformal workhours worked (Finlay, 2021)
remunerationdomestic workwage
market transactionscare worksalary
unpaid workreturn to work (Silvaggi et al., 2020)
+
+
+
+

The world of work cluster, like the inequality and policy intervention clusters below, is made up of a general signifier (such as “work”, “inequality” or “intervention”) which has to be labelled in a study to form part of the sample, as well as any additional terms looking into one or multiple specific dimensions or categories of these signifiers (such as “domestic” work, “gender” inequality, “maternity leave” intervention). At least one general term and at least one additional term have to be mentioned by a study to be identified for the initial sample pool.

+

For the policy intervention cluster, a variety of terms have been identified both from the ILO policy areas and guidelines as well as existing reviews, as can be seen in Table 3. Where terms have been identified from previous reviews outside the introduced ILO policy guidelines, there source has been included in the table. For the database query, a single term from the general category is required to be included in addition to one term from any of the remaining categories.

+
+
+Code +
terms_policy = pd.read_csv("02-data/supplementary/terms_policy.csv")
+# different headers to include 'social norms'
+headers = ["General", "Institutional", "Structural", "Agency & social norms"]
+md(tabulate(terms_policy.fillna(""), showindex=False, headers=headers, tablefmt="grid"))
+
+
+
+ + ++++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 3: Policy intervention term cluster
GeneralInstitutionalStructuralAgency & social norms
interventionsupport for childcare (Perez et al., 2022)cash benefitscredit programs (Perez et al., 2022)
policylabour rightsservices in kindcareer guidance
participationminimum wagegreen transitionvocational guidance (Nevala et al., 2015)
targeting/ targetedcollective bargaininginfrastructurevocational counselling (Nevala et al., 2015)
distributivebusiness sustainability promotiondigital infrastructurecounteracting of stereotypes
redistributivework-life balance promotionquality of educationcommuting subsidies (Perez et al., 2022)
equal pay for work of equal valuepublic service improvementhousing mobility programs (Perez et al., 2022)
removal of (discriminatory) lawlowering of gender segregationencouraging re-situation/migration (Perez et al., 2022)
law reformationprice stability interventionencouraging self-advocacy (Nevala et al., 2015)
social dialogueextended social protection schemecognitive behavioural therapy (Lettieri & Diez Villoria, 2017)
guaranteed income (Perez et al., 2022)comprehensive social protectioncomputer-assisted therapy (Lettieri & Diez Villoria, 2017)
universal basic income (Perez et al., 2022)sustainable social protectionwork organization (Nevala et al., 2015)
provision of living wage (Perez et al., 2022)supported employment (Lettieri & Diez Villoria, 2017)special transportation (Nevala et al., 2015)
maternity leave (Chang et al., 2021)vocational rehabilitation Lettieri & Diez Villoria (2017)collective action
unionization
+
+
+
+

Lastly, the inequality cluster is once again made up of a general term describing inequality which has to form part of the query results, as well as at least one term describing a specific vertical or horizontal inequality, as seen in Table 4.

+
+
+Code +
terms_inequality = pd.read_csv("02-data/supplementary/terms_inequality.csv")
+md(tabulate(terms_inequality.fillna(""), showindex=False, headers="keys", tablefmt="grid"))
+
+
+
+ + +++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 4: Inequality term cluster
GeneralVerticalHorizontal
inequalityincomeidentity
barrierPalma ratio (DFI, 2023)demographic
advantagedGini coefficient (DFI, 2023)gender
disadvantagedLog deviationcolour
discriminatedTheilbeliefs
disparityAtkinsonracial
horizontal inequalityclass (Kalasa et al., 2021)ethnic
vertical inequalityfertility (Kalasa et al., 2021)migrant
bottom percentilespatial
top percentilerural
urban
mega-cities
small cities
peripheral cities
age
nationality
ethnicity
health status
disability
characteristics
+
+
+
+

A general as well as category-specific term from each cluster will be required, using a intersection merge (Boolean ‘AND’), as well as in turn a single of those from each of the three clusters using an intersection merge. The resulting sample pool will thus include a term and specific dimension of inequality and of policy intervention within the world of work.

+

Second, in screening, duplicate results are removed and the resulting literature sample is sorted based on a variety of excluding characteristics based on: language, title, abstract, full text and literature supersession through newer publications. Properties in these characteristics are used to assess an individual study on its suitability for further review.

+

Narrowing criteria are applied to restrict the sample to studies looking at i) the effects of individual evidence-based policy measures or intervention initiatives ii) attempting to address a single or multiple of the defined inequalities in the world of work. iii) using appropriate quantitative methods to examine the links of intervention and impact on the given inequalities. The narrowing process makes use of the typology of inequalities, of forms of work, and of policy areas introduced above as its criteria.

+

An overview of the respective criteria used for inclusion or exclusion can be found in Table 5. It restricts studies to those that comprise primary research published after 2000, with a focus on the narrowing criteria specified in Table 5.

+
+
+Code +
inclusion_criteria = pd.read_csv("02-data/supplementary/inclusion-criteria.tsv", sep="\t")
+md(tabulate(inclusion_criteria, showindex=False, headers="keys", tablefmt="grid"))
+
+
+
+ + +++++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 5: Study inclusion and exclusion scoping criteria
ParameterInclusion criteriaExclusion criteria
Time framestudy published in or after 2000study published before 2000
Study typeprimary researchopinion piece, editorial, commentary, news article, literature review
Study recencymost recent publication of studygray literature superseded by white literature publication
Study focusinequality or labour market outcomes as primary outcome (dependent variable)neither inequality nor labour market outcomes as dependent variable
policy measure or strategy as primary intervention (independent variable)no policy measure/strategy as intervention or relationship unclear
specifically relates to some dimension of world of workexists outside world of work for both independent and dependent variables
focus on dimension of inequality in analysisno focus on mention of inequality in analysis
+
+
+
+

To facilitate the screening process, with the help of ‘Zotero’ reference manager a system of keywords is used to tag individual studies in the sample with their reason for exclusion,such as ‘excluded::language’, ‘excluded::title’, ‘excluded::abstract’, and ‘excluded::superseded’. This keyword-based system is equally used to further categorize the sample studies that do not fall into exclusion criteria, based on primary country of analysis, world region, as well as income level classification. To that end, a ‘country::’, ‘region::’ and ‘income::’ are used to disambiguate between the respective characteristics, such as ‘region::LAC’ for Latin America and the Caribbean, ‘region::SSA’ for Sub-Saharan Africa; as well as for example ‘income::low-middle’, ‘income::upper-middle’ or ‘income::high’. These two delineations follow the ILO categorizations on world regions and the country income classifications based on World Bank income groupings (ILO, 2022a).

+

Similarly, if a specific type of inequality, or a specific intervention, represents the focus of a study, these will be reflected in the same keyword system, through for example ‘inequality::income’ or ‘inequality::gender’. The complete process of identification and screening is undertaken with the help of the Zotero reference manager, ultimately leaving only publications which are relevant for final full-text review and analysis. Last, for extraction, studies are screened for their full-texts, irrelevant studies excluded with ‘excluded::full-text’ as explained above and relevant studies then ingested into the final sample pool.

+

Should any literature reviews be identified as relevant during this screening process, they will in turn be crawled for cited sources in a ‘snowballing’ process, and the sources will be added to the sample to undergo the same screening process explained above.

+
+
+
+
+
+
flowchart TD;
+    search_db["Records identified through database searching (n=1643)"] --> starting_sample;
+    search_prev["Records identified through other sources (n=753)"] --> starting_sample["Starting sample (n=2396)"];
+
+    starting_sample -- "Duplicate removal (-21 removed) "--> dedup["Records after duplicates removed (n=2418)"];
+
+    dedup -- "Title screening (833 excluded)" --> title_screened["Records after titles screened (n=1585)"];
+
+    title_screened -- "Abstract screening (1139 excluded)"--> abstract_screened["Records after abstracts screened (n=446"];
+
+    abstract_screened -- "  Language screening (1 excluded)  "--> language_screened["Records after language screened (n=445)"];
+
+    language_screened -- "  Full-text screening (416 excluded)  "--> full-text_screened["Full-text articles assessed for eligibility (n=38)"];
+
+
+
Figure 1: Sample sorting process through identification and screening
+
+
+
+
+

All relevant data concerning both their major findings and statistical significance are then extracted from the individual studies into a collective results matrix. The results to be identified in the matrix include a study’s: i) key outcome measures (dependent variables), ii) main findings, iii) main policy interventions (independent variables), iv) study design and sample size, v) dataset and methods of evaluation, vi) direction of relation and level of representativeness, vii) level of statistical significance, viii) main limitations.

+
+
+

Data

+
+
+

The query execution results in an initial sample of 1643 potential studies identified from the database search as well as 753 potential studies from other sources, leading to a total initial number of 2396. This accounts for all identified studies without duplicate removal, without controlling for literature that has been superseded or applying any other screening criteria. Of these, 151 have been identified as potentially relevant studies for the purposes of this scoping review, from which 38 have been extracted.

+
+
+ +

The currently identified literature rises somewhat in volume over time, with first larger outputs identified from 2014, as can be seen in Figure 2.

+ +

+
+
+Code +
df_study_years = (
+    bib_df.groupby(["author", "year", "title"])
+    .first()
+    .reset_index()
+    .drop_duplicates()
+)
+# plot by year TODO decide if we want to distinguish by literature type/region/etc as hue
+# FIXME should be timeseries plot so no years are missing
+ax = sns.countplot(df_study_years, x="year")
+ax.tick_params(axis='x', rotation=45)
+ax.set_xlabel("")
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+df_study_years = None
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 2: Publications per year
+
+
+
+
+

Anomalies such as the relatively significant dips in output in 2016 and 2012 become especially interesting against the strong later increase of output. While this can mean a decreased interest or different focus points within academia during those time spans, it may also point towards alternative term clusters that are newly arising, or a re-focus towards different interventions, and should thus be kept in mind for future scoping efforts.

+

The predominant amount of literature is based on white literature, with only a marginal amount solely published as gray literature. This represents a gap which seems reasonable and not surprising since the database query efforts were primarily aimed at finding the most current versions of white literature. Such a stark gap speaks to a well targeted identifaction procedure, with more up-to-date white literature correctly superseding potential previous publications.

+

Figure 3 shows the average number of citations for all studies published within an individual year. From the literature sample, several patterns emerge: First, in general, citation counts are slightly decreasing - as should generally be expected with newer publications as less time has passed allowing either their contents be dissected and distributed or any repeat citations having taken place.

+
+
+Code +
bib_df["zot_cited"] = bib_df["zot_cited"].dropna().astype("int")
+grpd = bib_df.groupby(["year"], as_index=False)["zot_cited"].mean()
+fig, ax = plt.subplots()
+ax.bar(grpd["year"], grpd["zot_cited"])
+sns.regplot(x=grpd["year"], y=grpd["zot_cited"], ax=ax)
+#ax = sns.lmplot(data=grpd, x="year", y="zot_cited", fit_reg=True)
+ax.tick_params(axis='x', rotation=45)
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 3: Average citations per year
+
+
+
+
+

Second, while such a decrease is visible the changes between individual years are more erratic due to strong changes from year to year. This suggests, first, no overall decrease in academic interest in the topic over this period of time, and second, no linearly developing concentration or centralization of knowledge output and dissemination, though it also throws into question a clear-cut increase of relevant output over time.

+

Positive outlier years in citation amount can point to clusters of relevant literature feeding wider dissemination or cross-disciplinary interest, a possible sign of still somewhat unfocused research production which does not approach from a single coherent perspective yet. It can also point to a centralization of knowledge production, with studies feeding more intensely off each other during the review process, a possible sign of more focused knowledge production and thus valuable to more closely review during the screening process.

+

It may also suggest that clearly influential studies have been produced during those years, a possibility which may be more relevant during years of more singular releases (such as 2011 and 2013). This is because, as Figure 2 showed, the overall output was nowhere near as rich as in the following years, allowing single influential works to skew the visible means for those years.

+

In all of these cases, such outliers should provide clear points of interest during the screening process for eventual re-evaluation of utilized scoping term clusters and for future research focus. Should they point towards gaps (or over-optimization) of specific areas of interest during those time-frames or more generally, they may provide an impetus for tweaking future identification queries to better align with the prevailing literature output.

+ +
+
+Code +
by_intervention = (
+    bib_df.groupby(["author", "year", "title"])
+    .agg(
+        {
+            "intervention": lambda _col: "; ".join(_col),
+        }
+    )
+    .reset_index()
+    .drop_duplicates()
+    .assign(
+        intervention=lambda _df: _df["intervention"].apply(
+            lambda _cell: set([x.strip() for x in re.sub(r"\(.*\)", "", _cell).split(";")])
+        ),
+    )
+    .explode("intervention")
+)
+sort_order = by_intervention["intervention"].value_counts().index
+
+fig = plt.figure()
+fig.set_size_inches(6, 3)
+ax = sns.countplot(by_intervention, x="intervention", order=by_intervention["intervention"].value_counts().index)
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.show()
+by_intervention = None
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 4: Predominant type of intervention
+
+
+
+
+

Figure 4 shows the most often analysed interventions for the literature reviewed. Overall, there is a focus on measures of minimum wage and education interventions, as well as collective action, subsidies, trade liberalization changes and training. This points to a spread capturing both institutional, as well as structural and agency-driven programmes.

+ +
+
+
+

Synthesis: A multitude of lenses

+

This section will present a synthesis of evidence from the scoping review. The section will also present a discussion on the implications of the current evidence base for policy and underscore key knowledge gaps.

+

One of the primary lenses through which policy interventions to reduce inequalities in the world of work are viewed is that of income inequality, often measured for all people throughout a country or subsets thereof. At the same time, the primacy of income should not be overstated as disregarding the intersectional nature of inequalities may lead to adverse targeting or intervention outcomes, as can be seen in the following studies on policies to increase overall income equality.

+

Since policies employed in the pursuit of increased equality can take a wide form of actors, strategy approaches and implementation details, the following synthesis will first categorize between the main thematic area and its associated interventions, which are then distinguished between for their primary outcome inequalities.

+
+

Institutional

+ +

Whitworth (2021) analyse the spatial consequences of a UK work programme on spatial factors of job deprivation or opportunity increases. The programme follows a quasi-marketized approach of rewarding employment-favourable results of transitions into employment and further sustained months in employment. The author argues, however, that the non-spatial implementation of the policy leads to spatial outcomes. Founded on the approach of social ‘creaming’ and ‘parking’ and applied to the spatial dimension, the study shows that already job-deprived areas indeed experience further deprivations under the programme, while non-deprived areas are correlated with positive impacts, thereby further deteriorating spatial inequality outcomes. This occurs because of providers in the programme de-prioritizing the already deprived areas (‘parking’) in favour prioritizing wealthier areas for improved within-programme results.

+ +

Carstens & Massatti (2018) conduct an analysis of the potential factors influencing mentally ill individuals in the United States to participate in the labour force, using correlation between different programmes of Medicaid and labour force status. In trying to find labour force participation predictors it finds employment motivating factors in reduced depression and anxiety, increased responsibility and problem-solving and stress management being positive predictors. In turn barriers of increased stress, discrimination based on their mental, loss of free time, loss of government benefits and tests for illegal drugs were listed as barriers negatively associated with labour force participation. For the government benefits, it finds significant variations for the different varieties of Medicaid programmes, with the strongest negative labour force participation correlated to Medicaid ABD, a programme for which it has to be demonstrated that an individual cannot work due to their disability. The authors suggest this shows the primary channel of the programme becoming a benefit trap, with disability being determined by not working and benefits disappearing when participants enter the labour force, creating dependency to the programme as a primary barrier. Two limitations of the study are its small sample size due to a low response rate, and an over-representation of racial minorities, women and older persons in the sample mentioned as introducing possible downward bias for measured labour force participation rates.

+
+

Minimum wage

+

Chao et al. (2022), in a study looking at the effects of minimum wage increases on a country’s income inequality, analyse the impacts in a sample of 43 countries, both LMIC and HIC. Using a general-equilibrium model, it finds that there are differences between the short-term and long-term effects of the increase: In the short term it leads to a reduction of the skilled-unskilled wage gap, however an increase in unemployment and welfare, while in the long term the results are an overall decrease in wage inequality as well as improved social welfare. It finds those results primarily stem from LMIC which experience significant effects driven by a long-term firm exit from the urban manufacturing sector thereby increasing available capital for the rural agricultural sector, while in HIC the results remain insignificant. The study uses the Gini coefficient for identifying a country’s inequality. Some limitations of the study include the necessity to omit short-term urban firm exit for the impact to be significant, as well as requiring the, reasonable but necessary, prior assumption of decreased inequality through increased rural agricultural capital.

+

Alinaghi et al. (2020) conduct a study using a microsimulation to estimate the effects of a minimum wage increase in New Zealand on overall income inequality and further disaggregation along gender and poverty lines. It finds limited redistributional effects for the policy, with negligible impact on overall income inequality and the possibility of actually increasing inequalities among lower percentile income households. Additionally, while it finds a significant reduction in some poverty measures for sole parents that are in employment, when looking at sole parents overall the effects become insignificant again. The authors suggest this points to bad programme targeting, which at best has negligible positive impact on income equality and at worst worsens income inequality in lower income households, due to may low-wage earners being the secondary earners of higher-income households but low-wage households often having no wage earners at all. A pertinent limitation of the study includes its large sample weights possibly biasing the impacts on specific groups such as sole parents and thus being careful not to overestimate their significance.

+

In a study on the impacts of minimum wage increases in Ecuador Wong (2019) specifically looks at the income and hours worked of low-wage earners to analyse the policies effectiveness. The study finds that, generally, there was a significant increase on the income of low-wage earners and also a significant increase on wage workers hours worked which would reflect positively on a decrease in the country’s income inequality. At the same time, it finds some potential negative effects on the income of high earners, suggesting an income-compression effect as employers freeze or reduce high-earners wages to offset low-earners new floors. The findings hide internal heterogeneity, however: For income the effect is largest for agricultural workers while for women the effect is significantly smaller than overall affected workers. For hours worked there is a significant negative impact on women’s hours worked, a fact which may point to a decreased intensive margin for female workers and thus also affect their lower income increases. Limitations of the study include some sort-dependency in their panel data and only being able to account for effects during a period of economic growth. Thus, while overall income inequality seems well targeted in the intervention, it may exacerbate the gender gap that already existed at the same time.

+ +

Gilbert et al. (2001) undertake a study looking at the distributional effects of introducing a minimum wage in Britain, with a specific spatial component. Overall it finds little effect on income inequality in the country. It finds that the effects on rural areas differ depending on their proximity to urban areas. While overall income inequality only decreases a small amount, the intervention results in effective targeting with remote rural households having around twice the reduction in inequality compared to others. Rural areas that are accessible to urban markets are less affected, with insignificant impacts to overall income inequality reduction. One limit of the study is that it has to assume no effects on employment after the enaction of the minimum wage for its results to hold.

+

In a study on the impacts of minimum wage and direct cash transfers in Brazil on the country’s income inequality, Silveira Neto & Azzoni (2011) especially analyse the way the policies interact with spatial inequalities. It finds that incomes between regions have converged during the time frame and overall the cash transfers under the ‘Bolsa Familia’ programme and minimum wage were accounting for 26.2% of the effect. Minimum wage contributed 16.6% of the effect to overall Gini reduction between the regions while cash transfers accounted for 9.6% of the effect. The authors argue that this highlights the way even non-spatial policies can have a positive (or, with worse targeting or selection, negative) influence on spatial inequalities, as transfers occurring predominantly to poorer regions and minimum wages having larger impacts in those regions created quasi-regional effects without being explicitly addressed in the policies. Some limitations include limited underlying data only making it possible to estimate the cash transfer impacts for the analysis end-line, and minimum wage effects having to be constructed from the effects wages equal to minimum wage.

+

Militaru et al. (2019) conduct an analysis of the effects of minimum wage increases on income inequality in Romania. They find that, generally, minimum wage increases correlate with small wage inequality decreases, but carry a larger impact for women. The channels for the policies effects are two-fold in that there is an inequality decrease as the number of wage earners in total number of employees increases, as well as the concentration of workers at the minimum level mattering — the probable channel for a larger impact on women since they make up larger parts of low-income and minimum wage households in Romania. Limitations to the study are some remaining unobservables for the final inequality outcomes (such as other wages or incomes), the sample over-representing employees and not being able to account for any tax evasion or behavioural changes in the model.

+
+ +
+

Unionization & collective action

+

Alexiou & Trachanas (2023) study on the effects of both political orientation of governments’ parties and a country’s trade unionization on its income inequality. It finds that, generally, strong unionization is strongly related to decreasing income inequality, most likely through a redistribution of political power through collective mobilization in national contexts of stronger unions. It also suggests that in contexts of weaker unionization, post-redistribution income inequality is higher, thus also fostering unequal redistributive policies. Lastly, it finds positive relations between right-wing orientation of a country’s government and its income inequality, with more mixed results for centrist governments pointing to potential fragmentations in their redistributive policy approaches. The study is mostly limited in not being able to account for individual drivers (or barriers) and can thus not disaggregate for the effects for example arbitration or collective bargaining.

+

Ferguson (2015) conducts a study on the effects of a more unionized workforce in the United States, on the representation of women and minorities in the management of enterprises. It finds that while stronger unionization is associated both with more women and more minorities represented in the overall workforce and in management, this effect is only marginally significant. Additionally, there are drivers which may be based on unobservables and not a direct effect — it may be a selection effect of more unionized enterprises. It uses union elections as its base of analysis, and thus can not exclude self-selection effects of people joining more heavily unionized enterprises rather than unionization increasing representation in its conclusions.

+

Cardinaleschi et al. (2019) study the wage gap in the Italian labour market, looking especially at the effects of collective negotiation practices. It finds that the Italian labour market’s wage gap exists primarily due to occupational segregation between the genders, with women often working in more ‘feminized’ industries, and not due to educational lag by women in Italy. It also finds that collective negotiation practices targeting especially managerial representation and wages do address the gender pay gap, but only marginally significantly. The primary channel for only marginal significance stems from internal heterogeneity in that only the median part of wage distributions is significantly affected by the measures. Instead, the authors recommend a stronger mix of policy approaches, also considering the human-capital aspects with for example active labour-market policies targeting it.

+

Dieckhoff et al. (2015) undertake a study on the effect of trade unionization in European labour markets, with a specific emphasis on its effects on gender inequalities. It finds, first of all, that increased unionization is related to the probability of being employed on a standard employment contract for both men and women. It also finds no evidence that men seem to carry increased benefits from increased unionization, although in combination with temporary contract and family policy re-regulations, men do seem to experience greater benefits than women. At the same time women’s employment under standard contracts does not decrease, such that there is no absolute detrimental effect for either gender. It does, however, pose the question of the allocation of relative benefits between the genders through unionization efforts. The study is limited in that, by averaging outcomes across European nations, it can not account for nation-specific labour market contexts or gender disaggregations.

+

Ahumada (2023 MAR 26 2023) on the other hand create a study on the effects of unequal distributions of political power on the extent and provision of collective labour rights. It is a combination of quantitative global comparison with qualitative case studies for Argentina and Chile. It finds that, for societies in which power is more unequally distributed, collective bargaining possibilities are more limited and weaker. It suggests that, aside from a less entrenched trade unionization in the country, the primary channel for the its weakening are that existing collective labour rights are often either restricted or disregarded outright. Employers were restricted in their ability to effectively conduct lobbying, and made more vulnerable to what the authors suggest are ‘divide-and-conquer’ strategies by government with a strongly entrenched trade unionization, due to being more separate and uncoordinated. A limit is the strong institutional context of the two countries which makes generalizable application of its underlying channels more difficult to the overarching quantitative analysis of inequality outcomes.

+
+
+
+

Structural

+

Shin & Moon (2006) look at the effects of providing relatively higher wages for teachers, as well as fertility differences, on labour market participation of young female teachers. They find that providing relatively higher wages for teaching professions as compared to non-teaching professions significantly increases female labour force participation for teachers, though the strongest determinant for it is possessing a college major in education, with overall education level being another determinant. The study also looks at the effects of the presence of a new-born baby and finds that it significantly decreases female labour force participation and is almost twice as large for women in the teaching profession as compared to non-teaching jobs, though it does not have an effect on the choice of job between teaching or non-teaching. The authors suggest this relatively higher exit from the labour market for women with new-born babies in teaching professions may once again be due to low wages: teachers leaving the labour market experience relatively lower temporary wage losses than in other professions, decreasing the exit-cost. A limitation of the study is its restricted focus on strictly female underlying panel data which does not allow for comparisons between genders within or across professions.

+
+

Trade liberalization

+

Adams & Atsu (2015) study the effects of labour, business and credit regulations, FDI and school enrolment looks at their long-term correlations to income inequality in developing countries from 1970 to 2012. They find that in MENA, SSA, LAC and to some extend AP increased labour and business regulations are actually negatively related to equitable income distribution, with market regulation not having significant effects. Similarly, FDI is negatively related and the authors suggest it is unlikely to generate general welfare effects in developing countries as it often has the wrong targeting incentive structure and can only generate more equity when correctly targeting connections from the local to surrounding economies. The authors identify developing countries lacking in institutional capability to accomplish regulatory policies optimized for benefits and see the need for policies requiring more specific targeting of inequality reduction as their agenda. On the other, they find school enrolment and thus education-oriented policies to be positively related with an equitable income distribution, suggesting it increases the capacity of public administration practitioners and in turn lead to more adapted policies specific to developing countries’ institutional contexts. Overall, the authors suggest that regulatory policy in developing countries needs to be built for their specific contexts and not exported from developed countries due to their different institutional capabilities and structural makeup. The study is limited in its design focus that lying purely on the macro-level regional analyses and can thus, when finding correlations towards income inequality, also only identify far-reaching structural and institutional possible root causes. While the literature on policy efforts towards income redistribution is large, studies which focus on the direct effects of individual policy interventions on income inequality and its possible linkages with other inequalities tends to focus on policies such as minimum wage impositions, direct transfers from the state or subsidies for individual life aspects.

+

Xu et al. (2021) study the effects of trade liberalization and FDI on income inequality in 38 countries in the Sub-Saharan region. It finds that increased FDI is negatively correlated with income inequality measured through the Gini coefficient, while trade liberalization is positively correlated with income inequality — as are corruption, political stability, rule of law and education, which contradicts a variety of previous studies. The authors suggest this may be due to the difference in sample and variables used, and the periods under study. They suggest that FDI may primarily go to the agricultural sector which can employ low-skilled labour and thereby reduce inequalities, while trade openness in fact creates jobs in other countries through higher import than export rates. They do not provide clear channels through which education positively correlates with inequality, though some possibilities are an unequal access to education (through excluding factors such as those based on spatial, gender or financial inequalities), as well as a differentiated quality of education. Limitations of the study are the region-wide level of analysis which may obscure context-dependent mechanisms within the different institutional-structural contexts of the countries and potential hidden unobservables which may bias the results.

+

A simulation study on the effects of trade liberalization through FTA by Khan et al. (2021) looks at income inequality in Pakistan between different households, measured through the Gini coefficient. It finds that there is no clear general direction for changes through FTA visible, with its impact primarily depending on micro-economic factors. Some large trade agreements are negatively correlated with the Gini while others are positively related, similar to regional and bilateral agreements. Generally, this is due to increases in the income of poor rural agricultural farm households being dependent on grain (which is the largest export good often rising under FTA), while livestock predominantly owned by poor rural households decreases in returns under FTA. The deciding channel can then be increases on the wages of farm workers (after among others grain export increases) increasing income equity, which, when they do not happen, can in turn lead to an overall decrease. Lastly, there are wage compression effects between urban and rural households, with richer urban households often decreasing processed food or service production. A greater mobility would dissipate all short-term gains and losses, as changes would get more evenly distributed across regions and households, while over the long term some positive aspects on income equality are visible if increased agricultural growth can be sustained. The study may have some limits to its generalizability due to the production factor reallocations for agricultural households being specific to the rural poor context in Pakistan.

+

Liyanaarachchi et al. (2016) run a simulation model on the effects of trade liberalization in Sri Lanka on income inequality and absolute poverty. It finds that the complete elimination of tariffs results in an overall reduction in absolute poverty, while tariff elimination with resulting fiscal policy responses to balance the budget would result in more mixed results but still pointing to an absolute reduction in poverty. On the other hand, income inequality is seen to increase for most sectors over the short term and for all sectors over the long term. The primary channels for this change are increased wage differences — especially the increased wages for managers, professionals and technicians, as well as increased differences between urban workers — and low-income households being more dependent on private or government transfers, which do not increase with trade liberalization.

+

Rendall (2013) undertake a cross-country analysis on the impacts of structural changes in Brazil, Mexico, Thailand and India from 1987 to 2008, and its effects on female labour market participation and the gender wage gap. Basing its analysis on the theory of capital displacing brawn in production for transition economies, it finds that all countries had reduced brawn requirements over time, though with large heterogeneity: Thailand lead the change with 15 percentage points while India had the smallest change with 0.2 percentage points. Following this, there was the largest steady labour market participation inequality in India, while there were mixed results for Mexico and Thailand, with Brazil having female employment shares changes similar to that of the United States. The channels here are seen as a reduced requirement for physical labour replaced by for example more service-oriented economies (‘brawn’ to ‘brain’). For female wage shares, in Brazil the wage gap closed most rapidly, though it began widening in 2005, while Thailand and India had converging but mixed changes. In Mexico, while the gap widened during the 1990s, it began closing again afterwards. The differences in wage gap effects compared to both other countries and the respective country’s physical labour market requirements show that contextual structural changes played a large role in each case: with erstwhile reduced returns on Brazilian returns for brain intensive occupations, the introduction of a female-lead manufacturing sector in Mexico in the 90s, and widely diverging basic labour market skill structures in Thailand and India necessitating subsistence-oriented participation; the results show impacts of structural changes, though limited through a variety of mediating factors influencing each case.

+
+
+

Education

+ +

Looking at the returns of the Tanzanian ‘Universal Primary Education’ programme on consumption and on rural labour market outcomes, Delesalle (2021), finds outcomes that additionally differ along spatial and gender lines. The programme both attempted to increase access to schools but also changed curricula to contain more technical classes, judged relevant to increase equity in rural areas. Even though the programme aims to increase universal equality of access to education, the study finds that gender, geographical and income inequalities persist throughout, with individuals that complete primary education more likely to be male urban wage workers. The study measures returns purely on consumption of households to show the estimated effect on their productivity — here, it finds generally positive returns but greatest for non-agricultural work, self-employed or as wage work. Importantly, the introduction of more technical classes, however, also changes employment sector choices, with men working less in agricultural work and more in non-farm wage sectors and an increased probability for rural women to both work in agriculture and to work formally. Limitations of the study include the inability to directly identify intervention compliers and having to construct returns for each household head only and a possibly unobserved ‘villagization’ effect by bringing people together in community villages for their education leading to other unobserved variable impacting the returns.

+

Pi & Zhang (2016) conduct a study on the impacts of allowing increased access to social welfare provisions and education to urban migrants in China, looking at the effects on wage inequality between skilled and unskilled sectors and workers. It uses skilled-unskilled inequality instead of rural-urban inequalities since the real wages of the rural sector are already much lower in China, making comparisons along the 90th to 10th decile ratios more difficult. The study finds that reforms to increase access to social security and education for urban migrants decreases wage inequality between the sectors if the skilled sector is more capital intensive than the unskilled sector, though it makes no specific identification of individual channels. There are several limitations to the study such as no disaggregation between the private and the (very important for the Chinese economy) public sector, job searching not being part of the model, and, most importantly, a severely restricted generalizability due to the reform characteristics being strongly bound to the institutional contexts of Chinese hukou1 systems.

+

Suh (2017) studies the effects of structural changes on married women’s employment in South Korea, looking specifically at the impact of education and family structure. It finds that educational interventions significantly increase the employment probability of married women, and it finds overall female labour force participation showing a negative correlation with income inequality. However, education alone is only a necessary not a sufficient condition for increased employment, with a married woman’s family size and family structure having an impact as well. Finally, education also has an intergenerational impact, with the female education also positively relating to daughters’ education levels.

+

Coutinho et al. (2006) study the impacts of special education between young men and women on their relative employment probabilities and incomes. It finds that, overall, young women with disabilities were significantly less likely to be employed, earned less than males with disabilities, had lower likelihood of obtaining a high school diploma and were more likely to be a biological parent. For the employment outcomes, the primary channels identified were men with disabilities being in employment both more months in the preceding period and more hours per week on average than women with disabilities. Overall, more women were employed in clerical positions and substantially more men employed in technical or skilled positions for both special education and the control samples. Similarly, for income there was a gender-based difference for the whole sample, though with substantial internal heterogeneity showing only marginal differences between men and women in the high-achieving subsample and the largest differences in the low-achieving and special needs subsample. The suggestions include a strengthening of personal agency to remain in education longer and delay having children through self-advocacy and -determination transition services for young women to supplement structural education efforts. Some limitations include initial subsample selection based on parent-reporting possibly introducing selection bias and the special education sample not including students with more severe impairments due to the requirement of self-reporting.

+

Mukhopadhaya (2003) looks at the income inequality in Singapore and how national education policies impact this inequality, focusing especially on the ‘Yearly Awards’ scheme and the ‘Edusave Entrance Scholarship for Independent Schools’. It finds that, generally, income inequality for migrants in Singapore is relatively high, primarily due to generated between-occupational income inequalities and migration policies which further stimulate occupational segregation. Then, for the higher-education interventions, it identifies issues which may exacerbate the existing inequalities along these lines: Already-advantaged (high-income) households generally stem from non-migration households and are also reflected in higher representation of high-achievement education brackets. The education policies thus may exacerbate income inequality through their bad targeting when considering inter-generational academic achievements with high-education households remaining the primary beneficiaries of the policies, a finding which is more significant for the ‘Edusave Entrance Scholarship for Independent Schools’ than the ‘Yearly Awards’ scheme which has fewer benefit accruals to wealthier households. More generally, the study suggests that the system of financing for higher education in Singapore aiming for providing equal education opportunity for all, may in fact further disadvantage poorer, low-income households that have a low-education parental background.

+
+
+

Infrastructural change

+ +

Kuriyama & Abe (2021) look at the effects of Japan’s move to decarbonise its energy sector on employment, especially rural employment. It finds that, while employment in general is positively affected, especially rural sectors benefit from additional employment probability. This is due to the renewable energy sector, while able to utilise urban areas for smaller scale power generation, being largely attached to rural areas for larger scale projects such as geothermal, wind power or large-scale solar generation. The study also suggests some possible inequality being created in between the different regions of Japan due to the Hokkaido region having limited transmission line capacity and locational imbalance between demand and potential supplies. Limitations include its design as a projection model with multiple having to make strong assumptions about initial employment numbers and their extrapolation into the future, as well as having to assume the amount of generated power to increase as a stable square function.

+

In an observational study looking at the inclusive or exclusionary effects of infrastructure development, Stock (2021) analyses the ‘gender inclusive’ development of a solar park in India which specifically aims to work towards micro-scale equality through regional uplifting. The project included a training and temporary employment to local unskilled/semi-skilled labour. It finds that the development instead impacted equality negatively, creating socio-economic exclusion and disproportionately negatively affected women of lower castes. While acquiring basic additional skills, none of the women participating in training remained connected to the operators of the solar park and none were hired. An insignificant amount of women from local villages were working at the solar park, of which most belonged to the dominant caste, and the redistributive potential was stymied through capture by village female elites. The author suggests this is an example of institutional design neglecting individual agency and structural power relations, especially intersectional inequalities between gender and caste. The study is limited in explanatory power through its observational design, not being able to make causal inferences.

+ + +

Blumenberg & Pierce (2014) look at the effects of a housing mobility intervention in the United States on employment for disadvantaged households, and comparing its impacts to the ownership of a car for the same sample. It follows the ‘Moving to Opportunity’ programme which provided vouchers to randomized households for movement to a geographically unrestricted area or to specifically to a low-poverty area (treatment group), some of which are in areas with well-connected public transport opportunities. The sample for the study is made up predominantly of women (98%). No relationship between programme participation and increased employment probability could be established. However, a positive relationship exists between owning an auto-mobile and improved employment outcomes for low-income households, as well as including those households that are located in ‘transit-rich’ areas. Access to better transit itself is related to employment probability but not gains in employment - the authors suggest this reflects individuals’ strategic relocation to use public transit for their job. However, moving to a better transit area itself does not increase employment probability, perhaps pointing to a certain threshold required in transit extensiveness before it facilitates employment. Ultimately, the findings suggest the need to further individual access to auto-mobiles in disadvantaged households or for extensive transit network upgrade which have to cross an efficiency threshold. Some limitations of the study are its models low explanatory power for individual outcomes, more so among disadvantaged population groups, as well as some remaining possibility of endogeneity bias through unobserved factors such as individual motivation or ability.

+

Adam et al. (2018) model the effects of transport infrastructure investments in Tanzania on rural income inequalities and household welfare inequalities, modelled through consumption indicators. Generally it finds that the results of public investment measures into transport infrastructure largely depend on the financing scheme used. Comparing four financing schemes when looking at the effects on rural households, it finds that they are generally worse off when the development is deficit-financed or paid through tariff revenues. On the other hand, rural households benefit through increased income from measures financed through consumption taxes, or by external aid. The general finding is that there is no Pareto optimum for any of the investment measures for all locations, and that much of the increases in welfare are based on movement of rural workers out of quasi-subsistence agriculture to other locations and other sectors. The study creates causal inferences but is limited in its modelling approach representing a limited subset of empirical possibility spaces, as well as having to make the assumption of no population growth for measures to hold.

+
+
+
+

Agency-oriented

+
+

Training & accommodation

+

Similarly, Shepherd-Banigan et al. (2021) undertake a qualitative study on the significance of vocational and educational training provided for disabled veterans in the United States. It finds that both the vocational and educational services help strengthen individual agency, autonomy and motivation but impacts can be dampened if the potential for disability payment loss due to the potential for job acquisition impedes skill development efforts. The primary barriers of return to work efforts identified are an individual’s health problems as well as various programmes not accommodating the needs of disabled veteran students, while the primary Facilitators identified are financial assistance provided for education as well as strengthened individual agency through motivation. Some limitations include a possible bias of accommodations required through the sample being restricted to veterans with a caregiver, which often signals more substantial impairments than for a larger training-participatory sample, as well as the data not being able to identify the impact of supported employment.

+

An experimental study on the impacts of benefits and vocational training counselling for disabled veterans in the United States by Rosen et al. (2014) measures the effects on return to work through average hours worked. It identifies time worked through a timeline follow-back calendar, measuring the change in days worked in the 28 days preceding the final study measurement. Here, it finds the sessions having a significant increase on more waged days worked, with an additional three days for the 28 preceding days on average. One limitation is the inability of the study to locate an active ingredient: Though the intervention clearly aims at strengthening some aspect of individual agency, the exact mediators are not clear, with neither beliefs about work, beliefs about benefits, nor provided service use for mental health or substance abuse impacted significantly.

+

The studies thus not only reinforce recommendations for strength-based approaches, emphasizing the benefits of work, but also highlight the targeting importance of subsidy programmes in general on the one hand, in the worst case reducing equity through bad targeting mechanisms, and their negative reinforcement effects widening existing inequalities of gender, age and racial discrimination through such targeting on the other.

+

With a similar focus on agency, Gates (2000) conducts a qualitative study on the mechanisms of workplace accommodation for people with mental health conditions to allow their successful return-to-work. The intervention is based on an accommodation which disaggregates the effects of social and technical components of the process and included a disclosure and psycho-educational plan. It finds that successful return-to-work through accommodation requires consideration of the social component (‘who is involved’), with unsuccessful accommodation often only relying on the functional aspect (‘what is involved’). The primary barrier identified for successful return-to-work are actually relationship issues not functional ones, with supervisors playing a key role for the success of the accommodation process. Additionally, it highlighted the necessity of strengthening the individual agency of the returnee, accomplished in the intervention through a concrete training plan with the worker but also with other key workplace players such as the supervisors. Additionally, providers must be willing to develop a disclosure plan with the employee and enter the workplace itself to adequately assist in the accommodation process. Limitations to the study include the limited generalizability of its findings with a small non-randomized sample size and restriction to mental health disability.

+

A study looking at the effects of vocational rehabilitation on employment probabilities, Poppen et al. (2017) look at the factors influencing successful employment for disabled people in the United States. It finds that the primary factors negatively correlated with successful employment were for women in the sample, for having mental illness or traumatic brain injury as the primary disability, having multiple disabilities, an interpersonal or self-care impediment and receiving social security benefits. On the other hand, having participated in a youth-transition training programme, as well as making use of more vocational rehabilitation services, are correlated with an increased employment probability. It thereby highlights the gendered dimension of employment probabilities and points to a necessity to focus training and rehabilitation efforts along multiple dimensions. Some limitations of the study include its limited generalizability, having a sample located in a single state, as well as a dataset intended for service provision not academic pursuits possibly introducing unreliability in its data and not measuring service quality.

+
+
+

Direct transfers

+

Emigh et al. (2018) study the effects of direct state transfers to people in poverty in the post-socialist market transition countries of Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria. It first looks at the correlations of socio-demographic characteristics with poverty to find that in each country there was an increased probability for poverty of low-education, larger and predominantly Roma households. It also found that poverty itself was most feminized Hungary, the country with the most advanced market transition in the study period, and least feminized in Bulgaria, the country with the least advanced market transition, and suggests that poverty may have feminized as the market transitions progressed. For the state transfers it found that while the level of payments may have been too small to eliminate longer-term adverse effects of the market transitions, in each country’s case the transfers to individuals reduced their poverty and were beneficial at least in the short term. The authors thus suggest that their findings may be compatible both with an institutionalist perspective seeing poverty-eliminating benefits in the short term and with an underclass perspective which contends that nonetheless the transfers do not eliminate the deprivations members of disadvantaged groups face, while providing little evidence for generating welfare dependency proposed in a more neoclassical perspective. However, due to no long-term panel data available to fully analyse the underclass and neoclassical arguments, these findings should not be understood too generalizable.

+

Wang & Van Vliet (2016) undertake an observational study on the levels of social assistance benefits and wages in a national comparative study within 26 developed countries. It finds that real minimum income benefit levels generally increased in most countries from 1990 to 2009, with only a few countries, mostly in Eastern European welfare states, showing decreases during the time frame. The majority of changes in real benefit levels are from deliberate policy changes and the study calculates them by a comparison of the changes in benefit levels to the changes in consumer prices. Secondly, it finds that changes for income replacement rates are more mixed, with rates decreasing even in some countries which have increasing real benefits levels. The study suggests this is because benefit levels are in most cases not linked to wages and policy changes also do not take changes in wages into account resulting in diverging benefit levels and wages, which may lead to exacerbating inequality gaps between income groups.

+

An experimental study of providing UBI for villages in India by Standing (2015) looks at the effects on absolute low-income household debts, utilizing a combination of qualitative and quantitative experimental research. It finds that the provision of UBI significantly reduced household debts, finding generally agreeing with assumptions in the literature, but goes beyond this by investigating the qualitative causes going beyond purely monetary value into what the authors call ‘emancipatory value’. They find UBI reduces dependency risk - primarily to lenders with high associated fees by allowing the repayment of existing debt, not having to work for the lender directly or by providing them parts of their wages, avoiding taking on new debts and, if new debts have to be taken on, allows choosing less exploitative forms of borrowing (such as from relatives or friends). The last channel especially is a point of interest of the study: the intervention did not just reduce absolute debts through an individual possessing more money, it generally infused more money into the local contexts, reducing its scarcity and allowing others such as neighbors and friends to provide more collective risk spreading in the villages.. The intervention also significantly increased possibility of saving in treatment households, allowing for an increased economic security and empowerment, which was also influenced by houshold head education, landholding, the household’s caste and size. The main channel this is accomplished through is a shift to institutionalized saving, with provides increased resilience against shock events.

+

Cieplinski et al. (2021) undertake a simulation study on the income inequality effects of both a policy targeting a reduction in working time and the introduction of a UBI in Italy. It finds that while both decrease overall income inequality, measured through Gini coefficient, they do so through different channels. While provision of a UBI sustains aggregate demand, thereby spreading income in a more equitable manner, working time reductions significantly decrease aggregate demand through lower individual income but significantly increases labour force participation and thus employment. It also finds that through these channels of changing aggregate demand, the environmental outcomes are oppositional, with work time reduction decreasing and UBI increasing the overall ecological footprint. One limitation of the study is the modeling assumption that workers will have to accept both lower income and lower consumption levels under a policy of work time reduction through stable labour market entry for the results to hold.

+
+
+

Microfinance

+

Al-Mamun et al. (2014) conduct a study on the impacts of an urban micro-finance programme in Malaysia on the economic empowerment of women. The programme introduced the ability for low-income urban individuals to receive collateral-free credit. The study finds that the programme, though not specifically aimed at women, indeed increased women’s economic empowerment with an increase in household decision-making, as well as increased personal economic security. Primarily this is due to the increased access to finance, though it also functions thorugh an increase of collective agency established for the women in organised meetings and trainings. It also finds, however, that the empowerment outcomes are constrained by the inability for individuals to obtain loans, with the programme only disbursing group loans which are harder to achieve through obstacles to collective organisation by different racial and socio-demographic backgrounds in each dwelling. The study is somewhat limited in its explanatory power since even through its random sampling design it can not establish control for all factors required in experimental design.

+

In turn, Field et al. (2019) undertake an experimental study looking at the effects of granting women increased access to their own financial accounts and training on their employment and hours worked, as well as more long-term economic empowerment. The background of the experiment was the rural Indian MGNREGS2 programme which, despite ostensibly mandated gender wage parity, runs the risk of discouraging female workers and restricting their agency by depositing earned wages into a single household account — predominantly owned by the male head of household. To grant increased financial access, the treatment changed the deposits into newly opened individual accounts for the women workers, as well as providing additional training to some women. It found that, short-term, the deposits into women’s individual accounts in combination with provided training increased their labour supply, while longer-term there was an increased acceptance of female work in affected households and a significant increase in women’s hours worked. The impacts on increased hours worked were concentrated on those households where previously women worked relatively lower amounts and there were stronger norms against female work while less constrained households’ impacts dissipated over time. The authors suggest the primary channel is the newly increased bargaining power through having a greater control of one’s income, and that it in turn also reflects onto gender norms themselves.

+
+
+
+
+

Discussion & policy implications

+
+
+Code +
# dataframe containing each intervention inequality pair
+df_inequality = (
+    bib_df[["region", "intervention", "inequality"]]
+    .assign(
+        Intervention = lambda _df: (_df["intervention"]
+            .str.replace(r"\(.+\)", "", regex=True)
+            .str.replace(r" ?; ?", ";", regex=True)
+            .str.strip()
+            .str.split(";")
+        ),
+        inequality = lambda _df: (_df["inequality"]
+            .str.replace(r"\(.+\)", "", regex=True)
+            .str.replace(r" ?; ?", ";", regex=True)
+            .str.strip()
+            .str.split(";")
+        )
+    )
+    .explode("Intervention")
+    .explode("inequality")
+    .reset_index(drop=True)
+)
+
+def crosstab_inequality(df, inequality:str, **kwargs):
+    df_temp = df.loc[(df["inequality"] == inequality) | (df["inequality"] == "income")]
+    tab = pd.crosstab(df_temp["Intervention"], df_temp["inequality"], **kwargs)
+    return tab.drop(tab[tab[inequality] == 0].index)
+
+
+

As can be seen in Figure 5, taken by region for the overall study sample, the evidence base receives a relatively even split between the World Bank regional country groupings. Studies tend to base their analyses more in national comparative studies for the North American and Europe and Central Asian regions, while relying more on case studies restricted to a single country context for developing countries in other regions, though this trend does not hold strongly everywhere or over time. A slight trend towards studies focusing on evidence-based research in developing countries is visible, though with an overall rising output, as seen in Figure 2, and the ability for reliance on more recent datasets, this is to be expected.

+
+
+Code +
by_region = (
+    bib_df[["region"]]
+    .assign(
+        region = lambda _df: (_df["region"]
+            .str.replace(r" ?; ?", ";", regex=True)
+            .str.strip()
+            .str.split(";")
+        )
+    )
+    .explode("region")
+    .reset_index(drop=True)
+)
+ax = sns.countplot(by_region, x="region", order=by_region["region"].value_counts().index)
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.show()
+
+def regions_for_inequality(df, inequality:str):
+    df_temp = df.loc[(df["inequality"] == inequality)]
+    return sns.countplot(df_temp, x="region", order=df_temp["region"].value_counts().index)
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 5: Studies by regions analysed
+
+
+
+
+

Policy interventions undertaken either with the explicit aim of reducing one or multiple inequalities, or analysed under the lens of such an aim implicitly, appear in a wide array of variations to their approach and primary targeted inequality, as was highlighted in the previous section. To make further sense of the studies shining a light on such approaches, it makes sense to divide their attention not just by primary approach, but by individual or overlapping inequalities being targeted, as well as the region of their operation.

+

As can be seen in Figure 6 which breaks down available studies by targeted inequalities, income inequality is the type of inequality traced in most of the relevant studies. This follows the identified multi-purpose lens income inequality can provide, through which to understand other inequalities — many studies use income measurements and changes in income or income inequality over time as indicators to understand a variety of other inequalities’ linkages through. Often, however, income inequality is not the primary inequality being targeted, but used to measure the effects on other inequalities by seeing how the effects of respective inequality and income intersect, as will be discussed in the following section.

+
+
+Code +
by_inequality = (
+    bib_df[["inequality"]]
+    .assign(
+        inequality = lambda _df: (_df["inequality"]
+            .str.replace(r"\(.+\)", "", regex=True)
+            .str.replace(r" ?; ?", ";", regex=True)
+            .str.strip()
+            .str.split(";")
+        )
+    )
+    .explode("inequality")
+    .reset_index(drop=True)
+)
+
+fig = plt.figure()
+fig.set_size_inches(6, 3)
+ax = sns.countplot(by_inequality, x="inequality", order=by_inequality["inequality"].value_counts().index)
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.show()
+by_inequality = None
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 6: Types of inequality analysed
+
+
+
+
+

With income inequality on its own often describing vertical inequality within a national context, the remaining inequalities gathered from the data rather form horizontal lenses to view their contexts through. The second most analysed inequality is that of gender, followed by spatial inequalities, disabilities, generational inequalities, inequalities of migration, education and age. The following sections will dive deeper into each predominant identified inequality, discuss what the main interventions analysed in the literature are and where gaps and limitations lie.

+

Only a small amount of studies carried analysis of inequalities surrounding migration, generational connections, education and age into the world of work, being the focal point of almost no studies at all. Age-related inequalities predominantly factored into studies as an intersection with disability, in focusing on the effects of older people with disabilities on the labour market (Kirsh, 2016). Studies that solely or mainly target age-related inequalities themselves often do so with a stronger focus on the effects on seniors’ health outcomes and long-term activation measures, with some extending into the effects of differentiated pension systems.

+

While a pursuit both worthwhile in its own right and, by the nature of pensions, closely tied to labour markets, the studies ultimately focus on impacts which rarely intersect back into the world of work itself and are thus beyond the scope of this review (see Van Der Heide et al., 2013; Zantinge et al., 2014). Equally, for migration few studies strictly can delineate it from racial inequalities or considerations of ethnicity. For the purposes of discussion, studies analysing both inequalities concerning ethnicity and migration will be discussed as part of one socio-demographic point of view, though results that do only speak to migration will be highlighted accordingly.

+

Surprisingly few studies focus on the eventual outcomes in the world of work of earlier education inequalities. The majority of studies analysing education-oriented policies focus on direct outcomes of child health and development, education accessibility itself or social outcomes (see Curran et al., 2022; Gutierrez & Tanaka, 2009; Newman et al., 2016; Stepanenko et al., 2021; Zamfir, 2017). Similarly, rarely do studies delineate generational outcomes from income, gender or education issues enough to mark their own category of analysis within.

+

Thus, for the current state of the literature on analyses of policy interventions through the lens of inequality reduction within the world of work, there are strong gaps of academic lenses for generational inequalities, age inequalities, education inequalities and inequalities of non-ethnic migration processes going purely by quantity of output. Care should be taken not to overestimate the decisiveness of merely quantified outputs — multiple studies with strong risk of bias may produce less reliable outcomes than fewer studies with stronger evidence bases — however, it does provide an overview of the size of evidence base in the first place.

+

The following sections will instead discuss in more depth the implications for individual inequalities, as well as providing a comparative view of the respective intersection with income inequality.

+
+

Gender inequalities

+

Due to its persistent characteristics, gender inequality is an often analysed horizontal dimension of workplace inequality in the study sample, with a variety of studies looking at it predominantly through the lens of female economic empowerment or through gender pay gaps. Figure 7 shows that there is a somewhat higher output of research into this inequality in both East Asia & the Pacific and Europe & Central Asian regions just ahead of North America, though the overall sample is relatively balanced between regions.

+
+
+Code +
by_region_and_inequality = (
+    bib_df[["inequality", "region"]]
+    .assign(
+        region = lambda _df: (_df["region"]
+            .str.replace(r" ?; ?", ";", regex=True)
+            .str.strip()
+            .str.split(";")
+        ),
+        inequality = lambda _df: (_df["inequality"]
+            .str.replace(r"\(.+\)", "", regex=True)
+            .str.replace(r" ?; ?", ";", regex=True)
+            .str.strip()
+            .str.split(";")
+        )
+    )
+    .explode("inequality")
+    .explode("region")
+    .reset_index(drop=True)
+)
+
+ax = regions_for_inequality(by_region_and_inequality, "gender")
+ax.set_xlabel("")
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 7: Regional distribution of studies analysing gender inequalities
+
+
+
+
+

Looking into the prevalence of individual interventions within the gender dimension, Table 6 shows that subsidies, notions of unionisation and collective action, education and paid leave received the most attention. Thus there is a slight leaning towards institutional and structural interventions visible, though the dimension seems to be viewed from angles of strengthening individual agency just as well, with subsidies often seeking to nourish this approach, and training, and interventions towards financial agency being represented in the interventions.

+ +

Approaches of paid leave, child care and education agree with the findings of Zeinali et al. (2021) on the main barriers at the intersection of gender and social identity: The main barriers limiting women’s access to career development resources can be reduced access to mentorship and sponsorship opportunities, as well as a reduced recognition, respect, and impression of value at work for women in leadership positions, with inequalities entrenching these barriers being an increased likelihood for women to take on the ‘dual burdens’ of professional work and childcare or domestic work, as well as biased views of the effectiveness of men’s over women’s leadership styles.

+
+
+Code +
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "gender").sort_values("gender", ascending=False)
+
+
+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 6: Interventions targeting gender inequalities
inequalitygenderincome
Intervention
subsidy51
collective action43
education46
paid leave41
minimum wage39
training31
infrastructure22
trade liberalization27
direct transfers13
microcredit11
regulation12
+
+ +
+
+
+

Whereas institutional programmes such as minimum wage and structural interventions such as education or the contextual trade liberalization are strongly viewed through the lens of income effects, with more studies targeting gender along income dimensions and the income dimension on its own, studies of agency-based interventions approach gender inequalities less through this dimension. Instead, they tend to rely on employment numbers or representation in absolute terms or as shares for their analyses.

+ +

A variety of studies also look at female economic empowerment outcomes through a more generational lens, focusing on the effects of interventions aimed at maternity support for the mother and/or children — childcare programmes, paid leave and maternity benefits.

+
+
+

Spatial inequalities

+

Spatial inequalities are less focused within European, Central Asian and North American regions, as Figure 8 shows. Instead, both Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are the primary areas of interest, with studies especially into Tanzania, India and Pakistan. The distribution of spatial inequality analyses otherwise is primarily conducted in the contexts of the United States and the United Kingdom.

+

This may point to the countries’ large rural populations or wider inequality gaps between rural and urban populations. While large rural populations are a sign of a predominantly agrarian economy, widening gaps are argued to be specifically appearing between rural and urban locations in post-industrial societies: Under modes of financialization, a spatial redistribution of high- and low-income sectors and increasing occupational segregation, rural locations are often left behind economically and require structural-institutional interventions to be rectified (Crouch, 2019).

+
+
+Code +
ax = regions_for_inequality(by_region_and_inequality, "spatial")
+ax.set_xlabel("")
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 8: Regional distribution of studies analysing spatial inequalities
+
+
+
+
+

Interventions affecting spatial inequalities are often viewed through indicators of income, as can be seen in Table 7. The primary intervention aiming at reduction of spatial inequalities is based on infrastructural changes, which aligns with expectations of the infrastructural rift between urban and rural regions.

+
+
+Code +
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "spatial").sort_values("spatial", ascending=False)
+
+
+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 7: Interventions targeting spatial inequalities
inequalityincomespatial
Intervention
infrastructure24
education62
minimum wage92
direct transfers31
subsidy11
trade liberalization71
training11
work programme01
+
+ +
+
+
+

Additionally, education interventions target spatial inequalities, with the effects of minimum wage, interventions strengthening financial agency, trade liberalization and training all playing a more marginal role. Thus, structural interventions are the dominant approach to reducing spatial inequalities, with institutional and agency-driven interventions often not targeting them specifically.

+

This can pose a problem, as even non-spatial policies will almost invariably have spatially divergent effects, be they positive: as is the case for higher positive income effects on rural households due to unintentional good targeting of minimum wage to lower-income households (Gilbert et al., 2001); or negative: as seen in the further exclusion of already disadvantaged women from employment, infrastructure and training opportunities in India under bad targeting and elite capture (Stock, 2021).

+

Policies, even those of an ostensibly non-spatial nature, must thus keep in mind possibly adverse targeting effects if not specifically adjusting for potential impacts on spatial inequalities. Rural communities relying on agricultural economies in particular may be vulnerable to exogenous structural shock events such as climate change, which may thus need to be a focal point for future structural interventions (Salvati, 2014).

+

The measures used to investigate spatial effects of policy interventions follow an even split between relative inequality measured through indicators such as the Gini coefficient or urban-rural employment shares, and absolute measures such as the effects on rural employment. With the level of analysis mostly taking place at the household level, some individual horizontal inequalities such as intra-household gender roles and economic participation or racial intersections can be considered, however, analyses of spatial inequalities often remain solely focused on spatial employment and income effects.

+ +

Spatial inequalities move both ways, however, as also shown by Perez et al. (2022) in a multi-disciplinary systematic review of the association between a person’s income, their employment and poverty in an urban environment. They find, similarly to the rural-urban divide, that employment plays a significant role in the poverty of urban residents, though here the primary barriers are identified as lack of access to public transport, geographical segregation, labour informality and inadequate human capital. They also agree with the potential policy interventions identified to counteract these inequalities: credit programs, institutional support for childcare, guaranteed minimum income/universal basic income or the provision of living wages, commuting subsidies, and housing mobility programs, which largely map onto structural or institutional efforts identified by the studies.

+

Like the study pool shows, many of the highlighted barriers can be mapped onto channels of inequality: gender inequality’s impact, through traditional gender roles and lack of empowerment, a lack of childcare possibilities, or unequal proportions of domestic work; spatial inequality, through residential segregation or discrimination, lack of access to transportation, and a limited access to work; as well as pre-existing inequalities, here defined as the generational persistence of poverty, larger household sizes, and its possible negative impacts on human capital.

+
+
+

Disability inequalities

+

The dimension of disabilities in inequalities remains strictly focused on developed nations, through analysis of effects on inequality in the world of work in a context of the United States labour market, as can be seen in Figure 9.

+
+
+Code +
ax = regions_for_inequality(by_region_and_inequality, "disability")
+ax.set_xlabel("")
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 9: Regional distribution of studies analysing disability inequalities
+
+
+
+
+

Few studies approach disability inequalities primarily through the prism of income inequality, with more analyses focusing on other outcome measures as can be seen in Table 8. The interventions targeting such inequalities in the world of work favour an approach to measuring inequalities through employment, by absolute amounts of hours worked, return to work numbers or employment rates instead. Only when looking at the intersection of disability and gender is income the more utilized indicator, through measuring female income ratios compared to those of males.

+
+
+Code +
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "disability").sort_values("disability", ascending=False)
+
+
+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 8: Interventions targeting disability inequalities
inequalitydisabilityincome
Intervention
counseling20
training21
education16
subsidy11
+
+ +
+
+
+

Studies into interventions within the dimension of disabilities are predominantly focused on agency-based perspectives, with counselling and training being the primary approaches. Structurally approached interventions are also pursued, looking at the overall effects of education, or subsidies in health care, though even here, the individual effects of activation play a role (Carstens & Massatti, 2018).

+

The findings for a need toward agency-based interventions reflect in frameworks which put the organizational barriers into focus and simultaneously demand a more inclusive look into (re)integration of people with disabilities into the labour market and within the world of work (Martin & Honig, 2020). Here, in addition to the predominantly used measures of employment and return to work rates, meaningful achievement and decent work should be measured from individual economic and social-psychological indicators, especially in view of the already predominantly agency-based variety of interventions. There is a clear bias in studies on disability interventions towards studies undertaken in developed countries and, more specifically, based on the Veteran Disability system in the United States which has been the object of analysis for a variety of studies but equally highlights gaps in research on the topic in other contexts and other regions.

+
+
+

Migration & ethnic inequalities

+

The effects of policy interventions targeting migratory and ethnic inequalities in the world of work are viewed primarily through the regions of North America, Europe, and Central, South and East Asia, and the Pacific, as can be seen in Figure 10. Especially the specifics regarding migration are reviewed in an Asian context, while studies in North America focus predominantly on ethnicity in their analyses, though both dimensions are deeply intertwined and hard to disentangle for most studies.

+
+
+Code +
by_region_and_inequality.loc[by_region_and_inequality["inequality"] == "migration", "inequality"] = "ethnicity"
+
+ax = regions_for_inequality(by_region_and_inequality, "ethnicity")
+ax.set_xlabel("")
+plt.setp(ax.get_xticklabels(), rotation=45, ha="right",
+         rotation_mode="anchor")
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+
+
+
+
+

+
Figure 10: Regional distribution of studies analysing migration and ethnicity inequalities
+
+
+
+
+

As seen in Table 9, in terms of primary interventions analysed for these dimensions, most focus on structural interventions such as education or infrastructure, as well as institutional contexts such as the possibility for collective bargaining and unionisation, or the effects of universal income on the world of work.

+
+
+Code +
crosstab_inequality(df_inequality, "ethnicity").sort_values("ethnicity", ascending=False)
+
+
+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Table 9: Interventions targeting migration and ethnicity inequalities
inequalityethnicityincome
Intervention
education26
ubi23
collective action13
direct transfers13
infrastructure12
social security11
subsidy11
+
+ +
+
+
+

There is a mixed approach to using income-based indicators of inequality or other markers such as employment. At the same time, there is a somewhat stronger focus on absolute measures of inequality, such poverty, debt or savings, or hours worked in absolute terms. Relative indicators have a wider spread with the Gini coefficient, the Theil index, decile ratios or employment rates for sub-samples used.

+

From an organisational perspective, the focus on structural effects is in agreement with perspectives which highlight the conceptualisation of workplace ethnicity as separate from the majority in many places as a structural power structure (Samaluk, 2014). At the same time in a broader context, job insecurities, both produced by the dis-embeddedness of migrants and the broader contemporary institutional work organisational context speak to the same institutional-structural focus required as is already pursued in the literature (Landsbergis et al., 2014).

+

While some frameworks do put agency-driven necessities to the foreground (see Siebers & van Gastel, 2015), the consensus seems a requirement for structural approaches enabling this agency and their institutional embedding before more agency-driven interventions alone increase their effectiveness (see for structural necessities Do et al., 2020; Goodburn, 2020; for institutional contexts see Clibborn & Wright, 2022).

+
+
+
+

Conclusion

+

The preceding study undertook a systematic scoping review of the literature on inequalities in the world of work. It focused on the variety of approaches to policy interventions, from institutional to structural to more agency-driven programmes, and highlighted the inequalities targeted, analysed in subsequent study, their methods and limitations, to arrive at a picture of which lays out the strengths and weaknesses of current approaches.

+

Wide gaps exist between the research on existing topics within the areas and intersections of inequalities in the world of work. First, while regionally research on such inequalities seems relatively evenly distributed, focus prevalence on individual inequalities varies widely.

+

Research into interventions preventing income inequality are still the dominant form of measured outcomes, which makes sense for its prevailing usefulness through a variety of indicators and its use to investigate both vertical and horizontal inequalities. However, care should be taken not to over-emphasize the reliance on income inequality outcomes: they can obscure intersections with other inequalities, or diminish the perceived importance of tackling other inequalities themselves, if not directly measurable through income. Thus, while interventions attempt to tackle the inequality from a variety of institutional, structural and agency-oriented approaches already, this could be further enhanced by putting a continuous focus on the closely intertwined intersectional nature of the issue.

+

Gender inequality is an almost equally considered dimension in the interventions, a reasonable conclusion due to the inequality’s global ubiquity and persistence. Most gender-oriented policy approaches tackle it directly alongside income inequality outcomes, especially viewed through gender pay gaps and economic (dis-)empowerment, tackling it from backgrounds of structural or agency-driven interventions. While both approaches seem fruitful in different contexts, few interventions strive to provide a holistic approach which combines the individual-level with macro-impacts, tackling both institutional-structural issues while driving concerns of agency simultaneously.

+

Spatial inequalities are primarily viewed through rural-urban divides, concerning welfare, opportunities and employment probabilities. Spatially focused interventions primarily tackle infrastructural issues which should be an effective avenue since most positive interventions are focused on the structural dimension of the inequality. However, too many interventions, especially focused on reducing income inequalities, still do not take spatial components fully into view, potentially leading to worse outcomes for inequalities along the spatial dimension.

+

Disabilities are rarely viewed through lenses other than employment opportunities. While most interventions already focus on dimensions of strengthening agency and improved integration or reintegration of individuals with disabilities into the world of work, a wider net needs to be cast with future research focusing on developing regions and the effects of more institutional-structural approaches before clearer recommendations can be given based on existing evidence.

+

Ethnicity and migration provide dimensions of inequalities which are, while more evenly distributed regionally, still equally underdeveloped in research on evidence-based intervention impacts. Currently, there is a strong focus on institutional-structural approaches, which seems to follow the literature in what is required for effective interventions. However, similarly to research on inequalities based on disability, there are clear gaps in research on ethnicity and especially migration, before clearer pictures of what works can develop.

+

The intertwined nature of inequalities, once recognized, requires intervention approaches which heed multi-dimensional issues and can flexibly intervene and subsequently correctly measure their relative effectiveness. To do so, perspectives need to shift and align towards a new, more intersectional approach which can incorporate both a wider array of methodological approaches between purely quantitative and qualitative research, while relying on indicators for measurement which are flexible yet overlapping enough to encompass such a broadened perspective.

+
+
+
+

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+
+
+
+
+

Appendix

+
+

Full search query

+
TS=
+(
+    (
+        work OR
+        labour OR
+        production of goods OR
+        provision of services OR
+        own-use OR
+        use by others OR
+        of working age OR
+        for pay OR
+        for profit OR
+        remuneration OR
+        market transactions
+    ) AND
+    (
+        (
+            own-use OR
+            employment OR
+            unpaid trainee OR
+            volunteer OR
+            other work activities OR
+            wage-employed OR
+            self-employed OR
+            formal work OR
+            informal work OR
+            domestic work OR
+            care work OR
+            unpaid work
+        ) OR
+        (
+            employment outcomes OR
+            labour rights OR
+            equality of oppoertunity OR
+            equality of outcome OR
+            labour force participationOR
+            labour force exit OR
+            job quality OR
+            career advancement OR
+            hours worked OR
+            wage OR
+            salary OR
+            return to work
+        )
+    )
+) AND
+
+TS=
+(
+    (
+        intervention OR
+        policy OR
+        participation OR
+        targeting/targeted OR
+        distributive OR
+        redistributive
+    )
+    AND
+    (
+        (
+            support for childcare OR
+            labour rights OR
+            minimum wage OR
+            collective bargaining OR
+            business sustainability promotion OR
+            work-life balance promotion OR
+            equal pay for work of equal value OR
+            removal of (discriminatory) law OR
+            law reformation OR
+            guaranteed income OR
+            universal basic income OR
+            provision of living wage OR
+            maternity leave
+        )
+        OR
+        (
+            cash benefits OR
+            services in kind OR
+            green transition OR
+            infrastructure OR
+            digital infrastructure OR
+            quality of education OR
+            public service improvement OR
+            lowering of gender segregation OR
+            price stability intervention OR
+            extended social protection scheme OR
+            comprehensive social protection OR
+            sustainable social protection OR
+            supported employment OR
+            vocational rehabilitation
+        )
+        OR
+        (
+            credit programs OR
+            career guidance OR
+            vocational guidance OR
+            vocational counselling OR
+            counteracting of stereotypes OR
+            commuting subsidies OR
+            housing mobility programs OR
+            encouraging re-situation/migration OR
+            encouraging self-advocacy OR
+            cognitive behavioural therapy OR
+            computer-assisted therapy OR
+            work organization OR
+            special transportation
+        )
+    )
+) AND
+
+TS=
+(
+    (
+        inequality OR
+        inequalities OR
+        barriers OR
+        advantaged OR
+        disadvantaged OR
+        discriminated OR
+        disparity OR
+        disparities
+    )
+    NEAR/5
+    (
+        (
+            income OR
+            "Palma ratio" OR
+            "Gini coefficient" OR
+            class OR
+            fertility OR
+            "bottom percentile" OR
+            "top percentile"
+        )
+        OR
+        (
+            identity OR
+            demographic OR
+            gender OR
+            colour OR
+            beliefs OR
+            racial OR
+            ethnic OR
+            migrant OR
+            spatial OR
+            rural OR
+            urban OR
+            mega-cities OR
+            "small cities" OR
+            "peripheral cities" OR
+            age OR
+            nationality OR
+            ethnicity OR
+            "health status" OR
+            disability OR
+            characteristics
+        )
+    )
+)
+
+ + +
+
+ + +

Footnotes

+ +
    +
  1. The hukou system generally denotes a permission towards either rural land-ownership and agricultural subsidies for the rural hukou or social welfare benefits and employment possibilities for the urban hukou, and children of migrants often have to go back to their place of registered residence for their college entrance examination. This study looks at reforms undoing some of the restrictions under the sytem.↩︎

  2. +
  3. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, one of the largest redistribution programmes on the household level in the world, entitling each household to up to 100 days of work per year.↩︎

  4. +
+
+ + +
+ + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/05-final_paper/scoping_review.pdf b/05-final_paper/scoping_review.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..684342a Binary files /dev/null and b/05-final_paper/scoping_review.pdf differ diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml index 952b323..b992aee 100644 --- a/pyproject.toml +++ b/pyproject.toml @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ [tool.poetry] name = "scoping-review" -version = "0.1.0" +version = "0.3.0" description = "" authors = ["Marty Oehme "] readme = "README.md" @@ -43,3 +43,14 @@ help = "Extract the csv data from raw yaml files" shell = """ python src/data.py > 02-data/processed/extracted.csv """ +[tool.poe.tasks.milestone] +help = "Extract, render, commit and version a finished artifact" +shell = """ +quarto render --output-dir 05-final_paper +poe extract +poetry version minor +VERSION="$(poetry version -s)" +git add pyproject.toml 02-data 05-final_paper +git commit -m "Publish version $VERSION" +git tag -a -m "new bundle for $(date -Isecond)" "$VERSION" +"""