# Terms of Reference

- attention to root causes of inequalities of work
    - drivers and determinants across all dimensions
- addressing both distribution and redistribution
    - seen as the most innovative one (?)
- fundamental principles and rights in intl labor standards
- social dialogue and tripartism
- interconnectedness, integration and monitoring
- country-specific approaches

the assignment will:
- explain what inequalities in the world of work are
- why they should be addressed
- what is added value of ILO doing so

with target groups:
- ILO staff & constitutents
- external stakeholders & partners

objectives:
- general: support position of ILO as key actor in ongoing debates and initiatives of multilateral system on poverty and inequalities
- 1: improve understanding of what inequalities in the world of work are
    - root causes
    - their linkages
    - how they feed into outcomes
- 2: identify evidence-based policy responses to prevent and reduce inequalities in the world of work
    - minimizing of inequalities
    - reducing the outcomes of inequalities

dates:
- Sep 30: 
    - draft detailed outline for conceptual framework
    - chapter indication
    - definition of inequalities in world of work, drivers and determinants
- Oct 30:
    - annotated bibliography identifying effective and evidence-based policy responses to adress inequality in world of work
    - annotated bibl will inform dev of conceptual framework
    - presentation to task force to gather inputs and views from diff departments

## Working Strategy

### Identifying root causes of LM inequalities

- a fundamental typology of inequalities within the LM *and* beyond the labor market is necessary
    - as ILO recognizes inequalities generate feedback cycles
        - within a life cycle and inter-generationally (through inequalities of outcomes)
    - to understand inequalities in the world of work, those beyond should not be a black box
        - gender/socio-demographic/pre-existing inequalities
        - put very simply: 
            - it might make sense for a mother to move away from a job to a space with better educational access for her child and the resulting issue should concern *both*
                - access to better education in the original region
                - the impact of better job availability or active labour market policies in the new region
- for each form of work to understand the primary inequalities in the LM
    - we need to understand how pre-existing inequalities feed into them as independent variables
    - often this will take the form of e.g. socio-demographic inequalities reflecting income inequalities
    - but not always, and that is the locating of the root causes I would see as primary goal for the first part of the review

### Identifying evidence-based policy responses which address these inequalities

- if we manage to break open the black box of root causes in this way
    - for vertical but especially for horizontal inequalities
- it should make it easier to analyze the impacts of policies removing inequalities for
    - the causes they help reduce the effect of
    - the impact on labour market inequalities itself
    - and the effects on resulting equality/inequalities of opportunity 

# Conceptual definitions

labour

'nature of work'

work

worlds of work

inequality in work

## forms of work

paid employment work
own-use production work
unpaid work
care work 
volunteer work
unpaid trainee work

## labor market outcomes

employment
unemployment
underemployment
labour force participation
self-employment/informality
labour productivity
skills
wages/earnings
hours worked
job security
social protection coverage
labour mobility

## socio-demographic categories

gender
ethnicity
race
age
disability

## types of inequalities (in worlds of work)

general characteristics of inequality:

- 'pre-world of work' inequalities; starting well before individuals enter world of work
    - unequal opportunities to healthcare, literacy, quality education
    - often borne from poverty, gender, family background, lack of legal status/identity
    - others often born with many advantages that give easy opportunistic access to build human capital
- inequality of opportunities !== inequality of outcome
    - often, today's inequalities affect future (generations') opportunities
    - high levels of current inequality = reduction in future social mobility
    - conversely, (some?) focus should be put on equality of outcome today to ensure equality of opportunity tomorrow
- while focusing on these intra-country horizontal inequalities, inter-country inequalities (esp income inequality, but predisposing other as well) should not be neglected
- distinction between:
    - vertical inequality
        - between all households in a country
    - horizontal inequality
        - betweek different groups
        - disparities in employment outcomes, labour rights, opportunities between groups depending on gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, health status, disability or other characteristics

forms of inequality:

- access to essential services (health, education, housing)
- income inequality
- access to means of subsistence (esp related to employment)
- gender inequality (part of horizontal, being one of the 'greatest forms of inequality today')
    - results in gender-based violence, harassment, domestic violence, unpaid care work
    - especially girls often facing unequal opportunities and 'persistent gender stereotypes in their access to education and health services and in other aspects of life' [13, ILC]
    - in most regions wome over-represented among poorest and under-represented among richest people (esp in SoutAs;EastAs;Pacific regions)
        - born primarily from unequal access to quality education, inequalities and injustices in labour market participation, gender earnings gaps
        - often also results in children being exposed to severe health and food deprivation and differences in control over assets (capital/land)
        - recently exacerbated by COVID-19 reversing equality progress through increased women's/men's paid/unpaid/care work inequalities 
- girls/boys from ethnic minorities, indigenous, tribal populations, remote rural areas often facing barriers accessing quality education & essential services
    - indigenous people account for 6% of world pop but 19% of extreme poor
    - stark contrast between migrant workers' high labour force participation rates and large proportion of low-income households
- spatial inequalities (rural/urban; small/large cities; richt/poor regions)
    - contributes to overall more fractures/unequal societies
- intersectional inequalities (made possible to highlight by vert/horiz inequality split)
- unequal distribution of work & labour income
    - among workforce among most important determinants of inequality
    - unemployment: forecloses income prospects; highest rate in young people
    - underemployment:
        - low wages make meeting basic needs impossible (esp. food, healthcare, education, decent housing)
        - including differentiation time-related underemployment (would like to work more paid hours); potential labour force (would like to work but not actively searching or not available for work); creates (way) higher numbers than purely unemployment numbers - especially in LIC
    - recently, (COVID-19) women, young people, less educated, low earners less likely to keep their jobs

## types of policies

- income:
    - difference between primary distribution ('market income', through property and employment) and secondary distribution ('disposable income', through taxes and transfers), and tertiary distribution (public services)
    - tax and transfers redistributing incomes towards greater equality in disposable income
        - extent of redistribution limited by small fiscal resources (e.g. through informal labour predominance)
    - policies to reduce income difference between urban/rural, ethnic minorities/majority one of main drivers of reduced income inequality (LAC region)

# Summary draft

- pre-world of work characteristics already taking huge influence on labour market and related equality of outcomes
    - inequality in access to essential services (health, education, housing)
    - inequality in access to means of subsistence (esp related to employment)
- income inequality huge driver of resulting inequalities, in turn already influenced by characteristics, additionally:
    - spatial inequality
    - gender inequality
    - employment inequality:
        - unemployment: forecloses income prospects; highest rate in young people
        - underemployment: low wages make meeting basic needs impossible (esp. food, healthcare, education, decent housing)
            - split into time-related underemployment and potential labour force

# Additional Terms

## Methods

### Survey-based

- Likert scale (1-4/1-5 scale questionnaire)
- Cronbach's alpha test score (reports coherence of set of items in a group)
- Binary answer (yes/no)

## Representativeness

In academic studies, representativeness can be assessed at various levels,
 depending on the scope and objectives of the research. Here are the different
 levels of representativeness commonly considered in academic studies:

1. National Representativeness: This level of representativeness indicates that the
 sample used in the study is reflective of the entire population of a specific
 country. The findings are intended to be generalizable to the entire nation.

2. Subnational Representativeness: At this level, the study aims to be
 representative of a specific subnational region within a country, such as a state,
 province, or city. The findings are intended to be applicable to the population
 within that specific geographic area.

3. Regional Representativeness: Some studies may focus on representing a broader
 region, such as a group of countries within a certain geographical area. The
 findings are intended to be generalizable to the population within that regional
 context.

4. Organizational or Institutional Representativeness: In some cases, studies may
 aim to be representative of specific organizations, institutions, or industries.
 The findings are intended to be applicable to similar entities within the same
 category.

5. Demographic Representativeness: This level of representativeness focuses on
 ensuring that the sample used in the study is representative of specific
 demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, ethnicity, income level, or
 education level.

6. Sectoral Representativeness: Some studies may aim to be representative of
 specific sectors or industries, such as healthcare, education, finance, or
 technology. The findings are intended to be applicable to similar sectors or
 industries.

These different levels of representativeness help researchers and readers
 understand the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to
 different populations, regions, or contexts. It is important for researchers to
 clearly define the level of representativeness they are aiming for and to use
 appropriate methods to achieve it.

## Validity

Internal validity and external validity are both important concepts in research
 design and are used to assess the quality and generalizability of study findings.
 Here's a brief explanation of the differences between the two:

Internal Validity:
- Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures the
  relationship between the variables it is investigating, without the influence of
  confounding factors.
- It assesses whether the observed effects or outcomes in a study can be attributed
  to the manipulation of the independent variable, rather than to other factors.
- Factors that can impact internal validity include experimental design, control of
  extraneous variables, and the accuracy of measurements and data collection methods.

External Validity:
- External validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be
  generalized to other populations, settings, or conditions beyond the specific
  sample and context studied.
- It assesses the degree to which the results of a study can be applied to
  different individuals, groups, or situations.
- Factors that can impact external validity include the representativeness of the
  sample, the ecological validity of the study conditions, and the relevance of the
  findings to real-world settings.

good link: https://learning.edanz.com/validity-systematic-review/

In summary, internal validity focuses on the accuracy and reliability of the study's
 findings within the specific context of the research, while external validity
 focuses on the generalizability and applicability of the findings to broader
 populations or settings. Both types of validity are important considerations in
 research design and interpretation of study results.
