### [x] VanDePoel2009 - HH characteristics determining rural infant death

* looks at determinants of infant deaths in rural regions at HH and community level
    * at multiple countries (6?) throughout SSA (including Benin)
* results:
    * mainly derived from rural disadvantage in HH characteristics (2/3rds of gap)
        * environmental factors (safe water source, electricity, quality of housing materials) biggest contributors
    * community characteristics less than 1/3rd:
        * 2/3rds of this from unobserved heterogeneity
        * 1/3rd of existence of health facility in community
    * lack of environmental factors can derive both from lack of community-level infrastructure and inability of some HHs to exploit it when available
    * effective policy thus needs to operate at both levels to improve it

### [ ] Golumbeanu2013 - electricity access and high connection charges

* looks at reasons for poor access to electricity for poor rural (and urban) HHs
* results:
    * major obstacle is high charge for customer to connect to electricity grid (some of highest connection charges in world)
    * solution requires concurrent political commitment toward identifying, examining, implementing low-cost electrification processes and financing solutions
    * low-cost technologies need to be put in center of attention
    * determinants:
        * lack of incentives to increase affordability
        * weak utilities commitment to provide broad electricity access,
        focused more on high-consumption urban markets
        * overrated technical specifications for low loads
        * greater distances between HH and distribution pole in rural areas
        * lack of affordable financing options

### [x] Djossou2017 - growth is pro-poor in Benin

* looks at relation between economic growth and poverty
    * data from 2006, 2011 Benin Demographic and Health Surveys
* results:
    * growth generally pro-poor in Benin
    * disparities between rural/urban; women and elderly:
        * women, elderly general livelihood improvement but generally favored non-poor relative to poor
        * urban poor HHs benefited less than rural from growth
            * potentially due to numerous efforts to open up rural communities to harness benefits of growth
            * **rural households access to electricity 17.64% (2006) 25.03% (2011)**
            * possession of durable goods (fridges, mobile phone, internet, ..) significantly improved in rural households
            * emphasizes need of infrastructure expansion to HHs (to rural communities)

### [x] Jaglin2019 - electricity autonomy in Africa

* looks at ways of electrification and different approaches
* results for rural areas:
    * individual offerings of solar panels/generators or smaller electric appliances (LED dry cell powered torches)
    * often offering collective solutions (kiosks, autonomous mini-grids)
    * half-way between individual and grid connection: mini-grid construction for more densely populated rural area, often requiring some sort of permit or license

### [x] Barry2020 - pay-as-you-go system does not bridge last mile problem

* looks at extension and preferred customers for PAYG contracts
    * PAYG: flexible loans allowing fees payment through mobile banking, to purchase solar kits or panels for lighting and charging services
    * 'last mile' problem: addressing an area neglected within the field of energy access (scaling challenge)
* results:
    * most of PAYG customers live in well electrified areas
        * esp Cotonou, Porto Novo, Abomey Calavi, coastal zone
    * most customers in urban/peri-urban areas
    * PAYG used to substitute unreliable grid electricity services
    * consumers in periferic/less electrified areas (Savalou) have low probability to default on credit
        * thus PAYG primarily targets credit-worthy customers

### [x] WorldBank2021 - electrification levels

* electrification level:
    * 2000: 22%
    * 2005: 26%
    * 2010: 34%
    * 2015: 30%
    * 2019: 40%
* location:
    * urban: 65% (2019)
    * rural: 17% (2019)
* electricity growth outpaced population growth (2017-2019)


### [x] Rateau2022 - Electrifying urban Africa

* data from 2017-2018 for Cotonou (urban economic capital Benin)
* Benin depends on Nigeria for power supply
* difficult to connect grid due to connection costs and long distances
    * solar energy in Cotonou is used as alternative power source not complementary, until they can connect to main grid
    * diffusion of solar/generators not systematic or the same
    * to be connected to conventional grid requires location close to it, while it covers only planned urban areas
* thus 2 main obstacles of rural and urban unplanned areas:
    * either electricity physically not available in local area
    * or high initial costs consumer pays for connection unaffordable
* generators and solar panels have become material markers of inequalities in access to electricity
* grid strengthening efforts also make Benin more independent from Nigeria as main supplier (with outages in Nigeria otherwise strongly felt in Benin)